Japanese Professors’ Experiences in Teaching Sport for Development in Online English-Medium Courses

Abstract

This qualitative study examined professors’ experiences in teaching online courses in an English-medium graduate program at a Japanese university. Based on Andragogy Theory, data included in-depth, semi-structured interviews with six professors who were faculty in a graduate program in Sport for Development. Synchronous online and follow-up e-mail interviews were conducted. A constant comparative method was used to interpret the data and identify themes. The recurrent themes were: (a) positive experiences in teaching online sport for development courses, (b) learning how to become effective teachers in an English-medium program, and (c) the importance of faculty professional development. To better support Japanese professors’ online teaching, this study encourages academic departments, administrators, and faculty to better design professional development activities that enhance the quality of online education and the use of English as the medium of instruction.

Keywords

college teaching sport for development English medium instruction andragogy Japan

Introduction

A prominent trend in higher education has been the expansion of academic programs taught in English in countries where English is not the main societal language (Miller & Pessoa, 2017; Wächter & Maiworm, 2014). In Japan, for example, there have been efforts to internationalize and improve education at Japanese colleges and universities in order to compete with not only other domestic universities but also foreign universities in global rankings. More specifically, Japanese colleges and universities have faced two primary issues, (a) a decreasing domestic youth population and (b) the need to develop more English-medium instructional programs (Rose & McKinley, 2018). In 2009, the Global 30 project was initiated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT), which aimed to enhance the internationalization of 13 selected universities and attract increased numbers of international students, and offered financial support of between 200 to 400 million yen per year (Shao & Rose, 2022). In 2014, MEXT announced the Top Global University Project (TGUP), again with the aim of enhancing the international competitiveness and number of international students at higher education institutions in Japan (MEXT, 2014). As a result of such efforts, higher education institutions in Japan have increasingly been developing programs that use English as the medium of instruction (i.e., English-medium programs or EMPs) (Bradford, 2013). An EMP is an educational program that is located in a non-Anglophone context, but in which specialized academic courses are taught in English (Aizawa & Rose, 2019). In Japan, EMPs aim to increase domestic students’ international understanding and competitiveness in the global job market as well as attract international student enrollment (Tsou & Kao, 2017).

However, teaching in an EMP can be challenging for faculty, who may have extensive content knowledge but little experience teaching that content in English and who may lack confidence in their own language abilities (Shohamy, 2012). Implementing an EMP online adds additional complexity as faculty need to arrange the learning setting, delivery style, mode(s) of interaction, direction (one way or two way), and modality (technology mediated, text-based, or audio or video based) of communication (Querol-Julián & Crawford Camiciottoli, 2019). Online instruction also presents a number of challenges for effective EMP implementation. For example, students may have more difficulty participating orally and students may be less engaged in lessons (Querol-Julián, 2023). Oishi et al. (2022) found that students in online EMP courses felt anxious and had difficulty maintaining eye contact with others and struggled completing group projects. However, online courses also offer a number of advantages and opportunities; for example, Soruç et al. (2018) found that audio recording lectures was an important strategy for graduate students in online courses because virtual learning contexts can support students’ listening comprehension by allowing graduate students to replay the lecture as many times as needed. Oishi et al. (2022) explain that instructors should create online learning environments where interdependence and inter-influence facilitate graduate students’ engagement with issues and collaboration with classmates, and Querol-Julián (2023) suggests that instructors can improve interaction in online EMP classes by using features of emotional intelligence, such as being attentive to students’ responses, using their names, and allowing them more time to respond.

In EMPs, faculty need to not only teach the content of their course, but also prepare students to participate in the international community (Wanphet & Tantawy, 2018). Dearden and Macaro (2016) report four ways in which educational systems have difficulty supporting EMP implementation: (a) a lack of faculty with adequate language proficiency, (b) a lack of stated expectations of students’ English language proficiency, (c) a lack of pedagogical guidelines, and (d) a lack of faculty training and professional development in how to teach EMP classes. There are still many faculty who resist taking part in EMPs because of the increased workload, lack of training to teach EMP courses in English, and stress factors associated with engagement (Bedenlier & Zawacki-Richter, 2015).

In the Japanese EMP context, Bradford (2018) identified a number of challenges for Japanese faculty teaching in an EMP, including linguistic, cultural, administrative, and institutional challenges. Teaching in an EMP may require four to five times more effort from Japanese faculty (Hashimoto, 2005; Tsuneyoshi, 2005). Thus, it is not surprising that many Japanese faculty are hesitant to participate in training to teach in an EMP and EMPs in Japanese institutions have encountered difficulty recruiting and retaining faculty (Bradford, 2018).

To better understand the experiences, challenges, and concerns of EMP faculty in Japan, this study focused on the perspectives of Japanese professors teaching in an EMP in Sport for Development (SFD) in Japan and investigated their rationale for teaching and staying engaged in the program.

Sport for development (SFD; also known as development through sport) is a field that focuses on participation, inclusion, and citizenship through sport, physical activity, and play to attain specific development objectives (Gilbert & Bennett, 2012). Successful SFD courses allow students to develop discipline, confidence, and leadership skills by bringing together people and sport communities and bridging cultural, social, and ethnic divides while focusing on the primary purpose of a specific sport or physical activity (Blom et al., 2015). Effective courses encourage students to understand clear learning goals and objectives and demonstrate inclusive practices in SFD. Strong SFD programs help students use and connect sport and play with other non-sport components to enhance academic performance. SFD faculty empower students and engage them to design and deliver sport and physical activities, build local capacity, adhere to principles of transparency and accountability, and pursue sustainability through collaboration, partnerships and coordination. SFD courses aim to train students to solve social issues using sport as a tool for development.

Given the role of sport in international development (Beutler, 2008), SFD courses fit well as a part of an EMP in higher education in Japan because these courses allow both professors and students to nurture international skills and contribute to Japanese colleges’ and universities’ objective of engaging globally using English.

Theoretical Framework and Purpose

This study used Andragogy Theory (Knowles, 1989), or the art and science of adult learning (Kearsley, 2010) as its theoretical framework. Rice (2007) explains that, in andragogy, instructors take a developmental role in relation to students’ academic and experiential learning. Recently, scholars in sport and physical education have used andragogy theory to study graduate students’ experiences (Sato et al., 2017a) and engagement (Sato & Haegele, 2017) in online courses as well as online course materials and content (Sato et al., 2017b) and graduate professional development (Sato & Haegele, 2018). More recently, andragogy theory has been used to investigate graduate students’ experiences in online SFD courses in an EMP (Oishi et al., 2022). In summary, the results of these studies demonstrated that graduate students believed that the online courses helped them store and access online reading materials and assessment tools that solved academic and social issues and concerns. However, there is a lack of research examining faculty experiences in such courses.

Following andragogy, instructors’ roles change over time as they allow their students to increasingly become independent learners (Maynard & Furlong, 1993). Following andragogy, faculty guide graduate students to perceive why they learn the class content that they do, understand their reasons for gaining specific skills, and perform class activities and assignments rather than just memorizing content (Knowles, 1989). Faculty should promote students’ reflections regarding (a) what they want to learn, (b) how they use that knowledge in practice, and (c) how they can achieve the goals of their own learning plan.

In Japan, like many places in the world, many colleges and universities consider themselves to be communities of learning, and emphasize collaboration, reciprocity, and interactivity. Following andragogy, faculty and students are learning partners and all members of the campus community, including professors and students, are viewed as learners (Robles, 1998). Andragogy is also used to addresses a fundamental shift in the purpose of education. In andragogy, professors continuously use instructional techniques that allocate responsibility to students as to what and how to learn (Tweedell, 2000).

As some researchers have noted, faculty professional development is an important component of EMP implementation (e.g., Bradford et al., 2022; Macaro et al., 2020; Park et al., 2022). EMP faculty need to develop not only English language skills, but also intercultural communication and pedagogical skills for handling the cultural diversity that comes with an EMP (Bradford, 2018). Andragogy theory can also be used to understand faculty development. There are four principles of andragogy that can be implemented by professors in their own faculty development, namely that they (a) demonstrate self-directed learning, (b) seek learning experiences related to their life situation and condition, (c) seek learning experiences in order to solve various instructional problems, and (d) are motivated by their intrinsic needs rather than extrinsic pressures or rewards (Knowles, 1984). These principles are important for the development of faculty who teach in an EMP.

The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of faculty engaged in teaching online SFD courses in an EMP at a Japanese university. The research questions were: (1) What were the professors’ experiences in teaching online English-medium SFD courses? (2) What were Japanese professors’ views about how to improve the quality of instruction in online English-medium SFD courses?

Method

Research Design

This study used a qualitative method with in-depth, semi-structured interviews (Seidman, 1998). Qualitative research uses an inductive approach (i.e., developing explanations from information) in order to lead to conclusions from data. It explores a deliberately selected set of data (e.g., interviews), to identify patterns that can be linked causally in a model or theory (Thomas, 2006). The intent of using interviews was to elicit professors’ teaching and learning experiences and to explore the meanings that they ascribed to those experiences. Unquestionably, interviewing is a useful approach to understand educational and social phenomena experienced by professors in their teaching contexts (Seidman, 1998). This study includes professors’ teaching experiences in online courses and reflections on past and current teaching experiences. Using an insider’s viewpoint, the lead author interviewed six faculty participants involved in teaching graduate SFD courses in order to shed light on the participants’ interpretations of their experiences teaching these courses as part of an EMP in an online format.

Research Site and Participants

This study recruited participants from two Japanese public universities, Eastern University and Southern University (pseudonyms). In 2016, these two Japanese public universities established a joint master’s program in International Development and Peace through Sport. This program (the only such program in Japan) aims to educate students who will contribute to solving social issues using sport as a tool for development and peace. It provides an innovative academic program in English, which allows students to develop practical competence in international development and peace through sport. Although the program originally offered in-person courses, the teaching mode was shifted to online teaching because of the COVID-19 pandemic. There was a total of six researchers (three from Eastern University, two from Southern University, and one from the United States as an external evaluator).

These sites were selected because these universities offer an English-medium graduate program in SFD. These universities are well-known public universities that hold strong reputations and offer kinesiology (e.g., sport and physical education) graduate degrees at both the masters and doctoral level. The universities’ graduate programs are accredited by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The master’s degree program in SFD offers a joint degree program to students who wish to enroll in the courses at either university. All students from these universities took various (face-to-face and/or online) courses simultaneously at either Eastern University or at Southern University. The joint master program’s collaboration with the Japan Sport Council actively provides an innovative EMP which allows students to develop practical and research competence in SFD.

The participants were professors who served as faculty in the SFD graduate program. Six individuals (Professor Sasaki, Professor Harashima, Professor Yoshinaga, Professor Takanashi, Professor Matsuki, and Professor Sugai) who are faculty at the two public universities served as participants. All participants were native speakers of Japanese. They each had several years of experience teaching in an EMP, including a number of years of in-person teaching. Pseudonyms were used for all participants to ensure anonymity and protect identities. Table 1 provides detailed descriptive information about the participants.

Table 1.

Characteristics of Participants’ Professional Backgrounds.

Name^a	Age	Gender	Experiences with online education course(s)	Experiences with English-medium instruction course(s)	University
Sasaki	60s	Male	1 year	6 years	Eastern
Harashima	40s	Male	1 year	6 years	Southern
Yoshinaga	50s	Female	1 year	6 years	Eastern
Takanashi	30s	Male	1 year	6 years	Southern
Sugai	50s	Male	1 year	6 years	Southern
Matsuki	50s	Male	1 year	6 years	Eastern

Pseudonym.

Participants were purposefully selected using a criterion sampling method. The criteria for the participant selection were that the participants (a) were teaching as course instructors in an SFD master’s degree program, (b) taught course(s) in English to students who completed work in English, and (c) were willing to voluntarily participate in the study. This program offers several courses (all taught in English) such as Introduction to Sport for Development, Olympic Studies, Research Methods, and weekly seminars. All courses (lectures and seminars) lasted 10 weeks with 10 class sessions (75 min per class) during the semester.

The logic of criterion sampling is to examine all cases that meet the predetermined criteria of importance or interest (Patton, 2002). The participants all voluntarily agreed and gave informed consent to participate in this study. Research ethics approval was granted by the institutional review board (IRB) at the lead researcher’s university and this IRB approval was applied to cover the second institution.

Data Collection

Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all participants. Interviews were originally intended to be completed in-person, face-to-face; however, the research team determined that conducting the interviews online was more appropriate because of safety concerns related to the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, all interviews were conducted in a synchronous online format using the Microsoft Teams platform. During the interviews, the lead researcher asked participants questions about distance teaching, their environment, lesson content, pedagogical strategies, and professional experiences that shaped their positions and experiences teaching SFD courses. The interviews were conducted individually in Japanese and lasted 60 to 90 min each. The researchers recorded a total of 8 hr of interviews. The interview questions were adapted from sample questions developed by Rogier (2012) and carefully constructed to ensure relevancy to participants’ experiences and teaching context.

Sample interview questions include:

(a) How would you describe your online teaching style? What types of practices and skills were important for teaching SFD courses that helped you become a better professor?

(b) How did you prepare the EMP lessons? How did your students respond to and evaluate your teaching? Do you think that the SFD content and lectures helped graduate students to improve their language competency and generate knowledge when you taught the course content in English?

(c) How did you feel about engagement and communication between yourself and students? What types of feedback did you receive from students in the SFD courses? Were chat communications through Microsoft Teams helpful for your professional experiences?

Translation Process

To prepare the data collected in Japanese for analysis and reporting in English, a cross-cultural translation technique (Banville et al., 2000) was used. This technique involves a group of researchers proficient in both languages working both individually and collaboratively to retain the original meanings through the translation process. The process began with three Japanese-English bilingual researchers individually translating the interview transcripts. Then, they worked with an established researcher to compare and discuss their translations critically to preserve the meanings of the original items, making edits as recommended. Finally, research team members were sent a copy of the final translation for final comment and critique. See Table 2 for the peer evaluation sheet used.

Table 2.

Translation Peer Evaluation Sheet.

Component	Description	Yes/No comment
Grammar	Is the translation free of errors when you review transcribed data? Any improper grammar, spelling errors, and typo? Does the translation follow the conventions of Japanese and English languages?
Terminology	Has the researcher used appropriate terminology in Kinesiology or sport for development?
Accuracy	Have the ideas and concepts of the transcription been recreated in the translation appropriately?Has the transcription been translated? Were there any missing words or text?
Reliability	Were the sentence structure and interview quotes checked?Has all source text been translated? Did you find any missing words or text?
General Which sentences should we revise?		Peer EvaluationAcceptable/Unacceptable

Data Analysis

A constant comparative method (Boeije, 2010) was used to systematically examine, refine, and interpret the data. The main strategy of this analytical process is to do what the name implies, that is to constantly compare the interview data while capturing meaning or themes. More specifically, the transcripts from the interviews with each participant were coded independently by the researchers, and then the researchers discussed the differences and named the thematic categories until agreement was reached (see Table 3 for sample thematic coding).

Table 3.

Data Analysis and Theoretical Category Example.

Theoretical categories example	Themes	Number of narrative phrases
Professor Harashima
Online instruction benefits	• Find positive results in on-demand [pre-recorded] courses and live courses rather than face to face courses.	8
Self-directed learning	• Allow students to choose communication, either oral or chat tools, and consider ethical behaviors.	7
Problem centered	• There are not many professional development opportunities of how to teach content in EMP (sport management) program.	10
Content centered	• Teaching ethical behaviors in sport management courses.	7
English competencyContent centered	• Feeling of anxiety and changes in using English as second language in face-to-face.	11
Experiences	• Positive experiences when they have alternative choices in using English as second language online, including chat, rewind system, slow motion etc.	5
Professional development	• Professional development—how to minimize language barriers and improve pedagogical knowledge and skills in using English as second language	5

In addition, two peer debriefers reviewed the codes, sought meanings, and pursued clarity of interpretation from the researchers. More specifically, they investigated similarities and differences based on all coded data in the interview transcripts. For example, after peer debriefing, the researchers conducted a second round of coding key terms (e.g., pedagogy, sport contexts, feedback, engagement) in the transcripts of the data sources (i.e., they recoded the original transcripts). Some codes were combined during this process, while others were split into subcategories (i.e., subthemes). Final confirmation from all participants was received and the researchers grouped the codes into thematic categories, which were then refined into recurring themes.

Results

This study examined Japanese professors’ experiences in teaching graduate-level SFD courses using English as the medium of instruction. Additionally, this study used andragogy theory as the theoretical lens for investigating professors’ pedagogical learning through online EMP courses. The analysis revealed three recurrent themes: (a) positive experiences in teaching online sport for development courses, (b) learning how to become effective teachers in English-medium programs, and (c) the importance of faculty professional development.

Theme I: Positive Experiences in Teaching Online SFD Courses

Although some participants noted challenges in promoting authentic communication in English in the online format, as described in previous EMP research, participants also noted distinct advantages of teaching online SFD courses and interacting with graduate students enrolled in the courses. All participants felt that when they taught about values of sport such as fairness, teambuilding, discipline, inclusion, perseverance, and respect, they were able to engage in interactive communication that enhanced the quality of online education for their graduate students. The participants explained that in previous in-person courses, Japanese graduate students were culturally hesitant to challenge their own practices, speak aloud, and explain their opinions and ideas because the Japanese view of a good student tends to be one who is passive, quiet, and obedient and who performs well on tests and assignments. Participants noted that online education allowed their graduate students to feel more comfortable presenting and defending their ideas and engaging in discussion in a wider variety of modalities, such as in an online bulletin board or online chat system. For example, Professor Sasaki explained that

When I taught Olympic and Paralympic History and Movement in face-to-face courses, many students were hesitant to speak in front of classmates, but it seems that online courses allowed graduate students to share their opinions. I personally learned how to teach online courses better than face-to-face courses. It was a challenge, but I can find the benefits. One of my graduate students explained about the importance of the Paralympics, that we need to teach values of sport and peace-building and inclusivity through sport to children and youth, so that they will be able to use this content and apply it to various future professional settings. This student used journal reflection and the discussion bulletin board in the online platform. It seems that graduate students actively engaged in their learning in online courses (Prof. Sasaki, interview).

Professor Sasaki also explained that some graduate students also posted their opinions about postponing the 2020 Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games. He said the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak changed individuals’ lives globally over the past year. Therefore, the 2020 Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games are a symbol of hope and recovery from the pandemic. Prof. Sasaki was pleased to find such a strong message from his students. Another participant, Professor Harashima also shared his positive experiences and some advantages of teaching online courses. He said that:

I felt that using on-demand and live classes using Zoom is beneficial for the graduate students. I teach sport management courses. I used on-demand [pre-recorded] classes when I taught terminology or basic concepts. My students used the on-demand lessons for preparing for the live classes. More specifically, in the live classes, I helped my students find how to use and apply ethical managerial behaviors and skills for sport for development, their real-life setting. My students demonstrated their debate knowledge and skills that allowed them to think critically in the discussion (Prof. Harashima, interview).

Professor. Harashima believed that in order to teach sport management courses for his graduate students, he needed to lead graduate students to enhance their critical thinking and ethical knowledge and skills in sport management, because students could watch the on-demand classes at their own pace and this helped them to think more deeply about the topics before attending the live classes. This emphasis on critical thinking reflects one of the emphases of andragogy theory. For example, in his sport organization course, Professor Harashima taught that managerial behaviors in sport organizations are increasingly subjected to ethical critique, issues, and concerns by athletes, volunteers, coaches, and government. He perceived that his graduate students learned that definitions and meanings of managerial behaviors and ethics change depending on the culture or geographical context (Zakus et al., 2007).

Theme II: Learning How to Become an Effective Teacher in an EMP

This theme shows that although the participants expressed frustration in teaching SFD content in a dialogic manner using English in both face-to-face and online courses, they were able to develop strategies through this process and learn how to deliver lectures effectively. More specifically, they recognized and explored the complexities of teaching course content in English, which not only arose from the switch of language from Japanese to English, but was also related to students’ social needs as they were expected to use English as a tool for social interaction as well as knowledge construction (Yuan, 2021). For example, professor Yoshinaga explained that she had difficulties assimilating to this unique teaching environment. She felt that a feeling of culture shock prolonged teaching challenges throughout her teaching transition.

She explained that:

I am struggling to teach the course content using English. I prepared sport for development content using the social, cultural, and political contexts of each country’s sport and physical activities. I read sentences slide by slide without arranging instructional patterns. I believe that all graduate students realized that I was reading the slides. Using English is difficult and challenging, because I am still figuring out how to provide effective methods to deliver specialized knowledge and skills of sport for development using English. One strategy I used in the course was that I used a feedback approach outside of the online class. All students e-mailed me the sections they did not understand or asked me to clarify the assignments. I felt that this technology-based feedback approach was efficient (Prof. Yoshinaga, interview).

Professor Yoshinaga felt that feedback (students e-mailed her after class) was needed, and she valued the process of reflective interaction that helps graduate students learn and transform their social and cognitive development (Kim et al., 2014). Professor Takanashi also mentioned:

When I taught the chapter on social justice and diversity in sport in live (online) classes, I had to teach about human rights, racial issues, and equality and equity concepts using English. My students had to read and use a dictionary when they found new terminology and English words. After finishing the class, my students sent me e-mail messages in Japanese for clarification. They also asked me what they missed in the course presentation via e-mail in Japanese. For example, when I taught terminology of sport for development, I found that each country has different definitions and it was hard to explain whether something was right or wrong using English. I felt that the purpose of sport and physical activities for development was different based on sport policy and advocacy in each country. Therefore, I needed to explain more details in Japanese after the class. I e-mailed my students about the content in Japanese (Prof. Takanashi).

Professor Takanashi believed that teaching online courses frustrated the professors, but it was important that the professors allowed their graduate students to ask questions in their native language outside of the classes, because the professors understood that their graduate students prioritized sociocultural needs through studying about SFD in online EMP classes. For example, the professors tried to use specialized SFD-related terms in English, including technical terms (e.g., sustainable development goals), and deliver the social, cognitive, psychomotor, and cultural concepts of the SFD content. More specifically, the professors were willing to deliver the concept of sport as an effective tool of development including interpersonal understanding and life skills (including self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-discipline). However, the professors had a difficult time explaining, in English, the complicated contexts and meanings of terminology in relation to SFD content. However, by identifying specific strategies, faculty were able to improve their ability to teach in an EMP.

Theme III: The Importance of Faculty Professional Development

The theme illustrates that all participants felt that professional development is vital for enhancing the quality of online courses, particularly in English. More specifically, it was challenging for them to initiate actions to help their graduate students unless the students asked for assistance during classes. They suggested that experiential learning strategies (e.g., using coaching video analysis) should be used as a part of professors’ professional development opportunities for enhancing the quality of online SFD courses. The participants must bridge what they have learned from their past experiences to possible future pedagogical practices. Experiential learning emphasizes that the professors pay special attention to relevant pedagogy on academic, social, cultural, linguistic, and professional relations (Knop et al., 2001). Professor Matsuki stated that many SFD courses consisted of classroom lectures and, therefore, it was difficult to explain practical components of coaching and teaching tactics in sport and physical activities through online courses. He said that:

Some professors were using various sport and physical activity basic instruction course content at my university. The SFD program included experiential learning (coaching content), so that these graduate students had some type of practical experience and knowledge. Although coaching experiences were important for all graduate students, we needed to help students’ learning so that they may be able to apply their knowledge and skills to their coaching sites. So, we need professional development workshops. I hope that the workshop content will include information about how to integrate video analysis of motor skills and game performance at gymnasiums or fields using a live system in online courses. This will be helpful. (Prof. Matsuki, interviews)

Professor Matsuki used an analogy as a metaphor for coaching in an online course. He said that if a sport (e.g., soccer, baseball) is bland, adding different types of rules, routines, and modifications (of equipment) makes the sport more interesting and motivating. Professional development in using a new pedagogical approach in online education, such as using visual learning, may change the results of students’ learning, as visual learning adds breadth and analysis to the teaching of sports and physical activities (Sato & Haegele, 2019). Through professional development, professors can learn how to conceptualize the use of video presentations and represent video data in appropriate and useful ways (McDermott et al., 1978).

Another participant, Professor Sugai, explained that in order to improve the quality of education for all professors, professional development workshops about how to overcome language barriers and develop communication skills would help them explore effective approaches and conditions in teaching content using English. Professor Sugai said that

I believe that we should have professional development that includes various English-medium programs and discuss about teaching strategies and techniques using English. I think we should be knowledgeable about careful planning, experimentation and analysis using English, so that we can select appropriate vocabulary and effectively integrate it into the course content. Professional development should help us minimize cognitive gaps between language barriers and sport for development course content. (Prof. Sugai, interview)

Professor Sugai also said that it was challenging to plan and design high quality courses using a second language and to try to get all students involved when students have various levels of motivation and participatory behavior styles in the same class. Therefore, he believed that creating a professional development group is an important way to enhance their learning by sharing their teaching approaches, ideas, responsibilities, and resources for English-medium instruction with other professors. This resonates with the findings of other research that suggested that professional development for teaching in an EMP should focus not just on English language ability itself, but on teaching strategies and techniques for teaching in English (e.g., Macaro et al., 2020; Park et al., 2022).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine professors’ experiences teaching, and their views about how to improve the quality of, sport for development (SFD) courses in an English-medium graduate program at a Japanese university. There have been very few studies that focused on Japanese professors’ pedagogical experiences in the field of Kinesiology (e.g., physical education, exercise science, sport policy, and sport sociology). This study used the theory of andragogy (Knowles, 1989) to investigate Japanese professors’ teaching experiences using English as the medium of instruction in SFD graduate courses.

These professors experienced the rapid close-off of face-to-face courses due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the differences between online teaching and other modes of course operation (e.g., pre-recorded on-demand and live online modes) (Rapanta et al., 2020). Although online courses can be challenging for professors due to, for example, a lack of knowledge of online education and forms of interaction, monitoring and support, and guidance and feedback for assignments and practices, the professors in this study believed that the online courses also helped them develop their lessons and teaching strategies, make adjustments to their lessons, and transition to a new instructional setting. This study found that all professors believed that online education had benefits for Japanese graduate students, because Japanese graduate students may struggle voicing their opinions in typical face-to-face classes. Kemper et al. (2018) explained that the typical Japanese conversation style is like a game of bowling: one person bowls at a time, while the others patiently wait and then respectfully and quietly take turns. Furthermore, Japanese students often see giving different opinions as confrontation, thus they are not willing to slip into another perspective. The professors previously had difficulty inviting their graduate students to exchange opinions and challenge other classmates’ ideas in face-to-face classes. In order to solve issues and concerns of active participation in class discussion, the professors felt that online education helped minimize graduate students’ shyness and quietness when they used the course’s online bulletin board and online chat system as communication tools. McCauley et al. (2017) explained that effective professors act as a guide and facilitator for graduate student learning in which the student is a collaborator in the learning process, with professors and learners working as partners in the educational process. Through communicating with professors using e-mail, chat, or telephone conversations and, when necessary, repeated announcements in the online platform, graduate students may be able to focus and improve their reading and learn how to ask questions when they need clarification in writing.

Reflecting andragogy theory, when professors teach SFD courses, they should create an interactive online environment that can foster and support graduate students’ reflective practices and collaborative construction (Schulenkorf et al., 2020) using an appropriate communication tool to promote their own self-awareness, critical thinking, and capacities for interpretation. In doing so, the graduate students may be able to share their ideas, ask questions, and be motivated by their learning environment (Sato & Haegele, 2018). Therefore, learning ways to observe, accept, and build on the influence of Japanese culture in online education classes made teaching Japanese graduate students easier and more rewarding.

All professors felt that the disjuncture between English language and SFD content was a major obstacle to their English-medium instruction (see also Yuan et al., 2022). In this study, three key points emerged from this theme. The professors (a) were less confident in using ways to improve students’ SFD subject knowledge in English, (b) struggled to adapt and simplify the class content based on their students’ English competency, (c) spent extra time to use the students’ first language, Japanese, to clarify the lecture content for their graduate students outside of the class. This study found that the professors were generally capable of using English to present course content and demonstrate their knowledge, but they were less confident in holding their students’ interest and motivation, in line with their language background and previous teaching experiences (Vu & Burns, 2014; Yuan, 2021). However, the professors used technology-based feedback strategies that served various purposes outside of the online course. For example, the professors felt that e-mail feedback attracted their students’ attention and improved learning compared to the conventional pen-and-paper feedback, because the professors and their graduate students knew what they missed in the online course (Li, 2000). Therefore, it is important for professors to consider what feedback is, how and when to give it, and what to focus on in the online environment (Mandernach et al., 2006).

This study found that the professors perceived the linguistic challenges of delivering instruction in English (see also Shohamy, 2012). The professors explained the course content in English, but after finishing the classes, they sometimes switched to Japanese to complete the whole explanation outside of the class. Some immediately offered the Japanese equivalent whenever new terminology appeared. Jiang et al. (2016) suggested that code-switching (shifting from one linguistic code to another, e.g., from English to Japanese) is an effective way to prevent potential disturbances or non-understanding and, more importantly, to ensure effective and accurate instruction. Similarly, Kim et al. (2017) found that students in EMPs may prefer occasional use of the students’ first language to clarify concepts. This inclusion of the students’ first language can be considered a form of translanguaging, in which learners’ (and instructors) use all available linguistic resources available to them in order to make sense of and learn new content. From a translanguaging perspective, use of the students’ multiple languages is seen not as limiting or constraining English-medium instruction, but as offering a number of affordances, including scaffolding for less proficient students, encouraging transfer of academic skills, engaging students in deeper learning, easing task management, and strengthening student cooperation (Adamson & Fujimoto-Adamson, 2021; Dalziel & Guarda, 2021; Goodman et al., 2021; Luckett & Hurst-Harosh, 2021).

In andragogy theory, when professors use extra communication such as feedback and/or code-switching practices with their graduate students, their graduate students may become more engaged with the course content and materials. Professors’ extra communication and caring behaviors stimulate their graduate students’ learning interest in the acquisition of knowledge and create additional connections through scaffolding and opportunities for deeper learning (Chametzky, 2014).

The professors viewed professional development as a way to improve their teaching by sharing duties, responsibilities, ideas, and resources with other professors. Higher education systems in Japan are considered to have a collective culture in that professors’ knowledge, skills, and resources gained from professional development are often shared from one colleague to another (Kaur & Noman, 2015). This study found that the professors believed that using additional techniques such as video recording and analysis of coaching lessons would help professors to engage graduate students in deeper learning. In addition, faculty may use student-centered learning techniques such as debates and discussions in online EMP courses, which have also been found to be effective (Klaassen, 2001).

The professors also believed that they need professional development opportunities related to teaching in English. The need for professional development for teachers in EMPs has been noted in much previous research (e.g., Bradford et al., 2022; Farrell, 2020; Fenton-Smith et al., 2017; Macaro et al., 2020; Park et al., 2022). Bradford (2018) notes that in Japan, there is often a misconception that professional development for teaching in an EMP should focus on developing instructors’ English language proficiency. However, effective teaching in an EMP requires more than English language proficiency, and professional development for EMP teaching should help professors better understand the learning task that students in an EMP are faced with and develop strategies to better facilitate students’ learning. In addition, professional development should focus on digital tools for faculty who teach in an EMP. Morell et al (2022) suggest that professors should be trained to gain knowledge and skills (in relation to examples of machine translation, style guidelines, phrase-banks, spelling and grammar check) of information technology resources to produce better quality materials and increase their self-confidence when they prepare and teach lessons in online platforms. A review by Querol-Julián and Crawford Camiciottoli (2019) suggests that the role of technology and online learning in EMPs will only increase in the future, so it is important that EMP instructors are provided the necessary professional development in these technologies.

Following andragogy theory, the professors believed that effective professional development sessions should allow the professors to gain relevant, practical, and applicable knowledge (Knowles, 1989). With the SFD context of the online, English-medium teaching environment identified in this study, addressing how to guide graduate students by developing teachers’ culturally relevant teaching skills is important so that professors can meet their students’ needs (Knowles, 1989; Sato & Hodge, 2017). The concept of culturally relevant teaching in professional development is to help professors be able to skillfully analyze, assess, and reconstruct content through self-directed, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking (Ahuna et al., 2014).

Recommendations, Limitations, and Conclusions

The results of this study demonstrate that Japanese professors can have challenging but beneficial experiences when they teach online SFD courses using English as the medium of instruction. However, a number of necessary improvements in the areas of online teaching, English-medium instruction, and professional development were raised. The following recommendations are intended to enhance the quality of SFD online teaching experiences for Japanese professors, though they may also be applicable to other contexts as well.

First, this study found that Japanese professors reacted to the COVID-19 pandemic and developed strategies for teaching online courses to respond to the emergency. This study found that these professors struggled to find various ways to develop a positive line between social interaction and academic achievement within student-student interaction in online education. These professors should not only motivate their graduate students to gain knowledge and skills to learn how to study, but they should also facilitate students’ understanding of the concept of peer learning, or sharing information with and learning from peers (Knowles, 1980). There are a few example activities that enhance students’ engagement in online courses, such as online debates or discussions, which draw on students’ expertise (i.e., SFD specialists) in communication, and peer evaluation using a SFD project as an assessment (Sato et al., 2017a).

Second, the SFD program needs to recruit and hire faculty with expertise in second language acquisition, language pedagogy, and English-medium instruction who would be able to address how to provide effective language support from which both professors and students can benefit (Symon & Weinberg, 2013). Then the professors must explore and pay attention to their graduate students’ opinions, so that they can obtain information essential for improving the learning process and error correction strategies in English-medium instruction contexts (Doiz & Lasagabaster, 2018).

Lastly, the professors and universities must have a common understanding and vision of online education with English-medium instruction. It is important to move from discussion to engagement in graduate-level courses (Chokshi & Fernandez, 2004). Following recommendations by Pilkinton-Pihko et al. (2019), professors and universities should focus on two different assessments (communicative competence as situational appropriateness and efficient communication in lectures) that present a first step toward the instructors of EMP courses and targets for professional language standards for discussing teaching issues and concerns in professional development opportunities. Based on their analysis of the assessment results, the professors may effectively provide content including (a) practical and theoretical content-area knowledge that online education, English-medium instruction can provide; and (b) dialogue with the system in which professors’ learning about content, practices, and responsibilities are established (Weimer, 2002).

We do, however, recognize that this study has several limitations. First, although we interviewed faculty in the only program of this type in Japan, the sample size was quite small, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. In addition, the study focused on a single discipline in a single country, and the findings may vary from the experiences of faculty in other disciplines or countries. Also, only one interview was conducted with each participant, and a single interview may not be able to capture a well-rounded picture of the interviewees’ experiences (Read, 2018).

In order to support Japanese professors’ online teaching, this study encourages colleges and universities to better design professional development activities that enhance the quality of online education and English-medium instruction. This will contribute to a greater appreciation for the richness of SFD and to effective professional experiences available for Japanese professors.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: We gratefully acknowledge the research funding support of the Institute of Health and Sport Sciences at University of Tsukuba.

ORCID iDs

Takahiro Sato

Ryan T. Miller

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