Enhancing Subjective Well-Being in Young Professional Athletes: The Role of Self-Esteem and Perceived Social Support in Moderating Neuroticism

Abstract

Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is especially vital for young professional athletes as they attempt to maintain and improve their performance during adolescence and beyond. Young professional athletes encounter various stressors during adolescence; furthermore, it is known that neuroticism is high during these ages. This necessitates the investigation of factors influencing the relationship between SWB and neuroticism. This study aims to examine the relationship between neuroticism and SWB among young professional athletes and determine whether this relationship is moderated by self-esteem (SE) and perceived social support (PSS). For this, a total of 422 professional athletes (mean age: 19.75, SD = 1.71) from various sports clubs in Turkey were included in the study. Participants completed the Big Five Inventory (BFI), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Scale for Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). In the constructed structural equation model, multiple regression analyses, post hoc analyses, and slope analyses were utilized. Young professional athletes with high levels of neuroticism were found to have lower SWB even after controlling for age, wealth, and health status (b = −0.14, p < .05). When comparing young athletes with low SE (b = −0.232, p < .05) to those with high SE (b = −0.165, p = .76), it was determined that SWB tended to decrease more in those with high neuroticism. Additionally, it was significantly predicted that SWB tended to decrease when either SE (b = −0.183, p < .05) or PSS (b = −0.214, p < .05) was low, or both were low (b = −0.293, p < .05). Conversely, in young athletes with both high PSS and high SE (b = −0.105, p = .072), this relationship became insignificant. However, the study’s cross-sectional design limits causal inferences, and self-reported data may introduce potential bias.

Plain Language Summary

Promoting well-being: Neuroticism in young athletes

1. Research Question and Expectations: Research Question: This study examines how neuroticism relates to Subjective Well-Being (SWB) among young professional athletes, and investigates the moderating roles of self-esteem and perceived social support. Hypotheses: It is hypothesized that higher levels of neuroticism will correlate with lower SWB in young athletes. This relationship is expected to be more pronounced among individuals with lower levels of self-esteem and perceived social support. 2. Background of the Research: Rationale: Understanding the impact of neuroticism, self-esteem, and perceived social support on SWB is crucial for enhancing the overall well-being and performance of young professional athletes. Scope: This study’s findings are relevant to young athletes, their families, coaches, and sports organizations, with implications for psychological health and athletic outcomes. 3. Methods and Research Design: Research Design: The study employed a cross-sectional design to analyze relationships among neuroticism, SWB, self-esteem, and perceived social support. Data were gathered from 422 young professional athletes (mean age: 19.75) across various sports clubs in Turkey. Key Variables/Participants: Participants completed questionnaires assessing personality traits, self-esteem, SWB, and perceived social support. 4. Results and Importance: Findings: The study found that higher neuroticism levels were associated with lower SWB in young athletes, especially when accompanied by lower self-esteem and perceived social support. Significance and Implications: These results underscore the importance of interventions aimed at bolstering self-esteem and enhancing perceived social support to improve SWB among young athletes. They highlight the pivotal role of sports families and coaches in fostering supportive environments that contribute to athletes’ well-being.

Keywords

subjective well-being neuroticism self-esteem perceived social support young professional athletes

Introduction

Studies conducted in various periods have shown that adolescents who engage in regular sports have better physical and mental health compared to their peers who do not engage in sports or are less active (Biddle & Asare, 2011; Eime et al., 2013; Goldfield et al., 2011). Numerous longitudinal investigations have shown this continues throughout adolescence (Appelqvist-Schmidlechner et al., 2018; Brunet et al., 2013; Murray et al., 2021). Is this situation valid for young professional athletes after adolescence as well? According to the results of systematic review studies, engaging in sports at an amateur level has positive effects on well-being. However, there has been a noticeable increase in psychological issues among elite athletes (Eather et al., 2023; Sothern & O’Gorman, 2021). Stambulova (2017) stated that transitioning to a higher level could create a crisis for 80% of adolescent athletes. Because of not being able to perform better at a higher level, intense training conditions, coach influence, relationships with teammates, competition anxiety, being away from home, and concerns about dual careers are particularly taxing for young adults who have passed adolescence (Gulliver et al., 2012; Hill et al., 2015; Rice et al., 2016; Ryba et al., 2015). These stressful conditions can have an impact on athletes’ mental well-being, resulting in the loss of talent in young athletes with great potential (Hill et al., 2015). Therefore, comprehensive research into various variables that could affect the SWB of young professional athletes is needed.

While current research has predominantly focused on various sample groups, studies targeting young professional athletes are quite limited; particularly, during the post-adolescent period, when athletes are likely to encounter various psychological challenges (Bauman, 2016; Rice et al., 2016; Stambulova, 2017). Therefore, developing various strategies to preserve and improve their mental health could be crucial in recruiting and nurturing promising potential athletes (Champ et al., 2020; Gulliver et al., 2012; Sothern & O’Gorman, 2021). In such scenarios, prioritizing the protection and enhancement of young professional athletes’ well-being is crucial (Champ et al., 2020; Hill et al., 2015). Investigating factors that can increase athletes’ life satisfaction and happiness levels plays a critical role in maximizing their potential. Additionally, this type of research helps identify and prevent variables that could negatively impact athletes’ well-being. Consequently, it can assist young athletes in positively transforming their behavior towards themselves and their surroundings (Diener, 2009; Furnham & Cheng, 2000). In this context, developing innovative models can aid in preserving and enhancing young athletes’ potential, helping them become not only successful athletes but also happy and well-balanced individuals.

Although numerous factors influencing SWB have been identified in the literature, self-esteem (SE) stands out as a particularly significant predictor. SE, particularly during adolescence and young adulthood, serves as a crucial determinant of well-being and psychosocial adjustment (Cheng & Furnham, 2003; Diener, 1984; Fadda et al., 2015; Rosenberg, 1965). Strong SE empowers individuals with an abundance of cognitive resources, enabling them to effectively confront and overcome adverse conditions (Spencer et al., 1993). If SE is considered a source that provides energy for individuals in stressful times, it is both a consumed and constructed psychological perception (Cast & Burke, 2002). This is especially important for young athletes because gaining high SE is crucial for them to adapt to new environments and ensure continuity. Indeed, SE growth is faster during adolescence and young adulthood compared to other periods (Erol & Orth, 2011). To achieve success in future sports careers and effectively overcome challenges, recognizing and prioritizing SE during these formative years are crucial (Spencer et al., 1993; Steele, 1988). Therefore, conducting studies, especially among young professional athletes, becomes imperative.

Personality characteristics are among the most influential variables affecting SE and mental health problems, playing a pivotal role in shaping how individuals perceive themselves and cope with psychological stressors (Anglim et al., 2020; Diener, 1984; Nikčević et al., 2021; Tay & Diener, 2011). In a meta-analysis by Steel et al. (2008), it was demonstrated that the five major personality traits account for approximately 39% of an individual’s well-being. This finding has been reinforced by multiple studies, which have consistently supported the notion that individual personality traits significantly influence the well-being of young professional athletes, highlighting the crucial role that these traits play in their overall mental health and psychological resilience (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Gubler et al., 2021). Research on sports participants has typically focused on comparing personality traits by examining the distinctions between those engaged in team-based sports and those involved in individual sports (Laborde et al., 2016; Malinauskas et al., 2014). Therefore, this study is particularly important because it investigates the relationship between personality and SWB in young professional athletes.

The objective of this study is to explore the factors influencing the well-being of young professional athletes positively and negatively, aiming to propose solutions for the current state. In this context, we address the following question: Does social support and SE moderate the relationship between personality and SWB in young professional athletes? This study aims to address a significant gap in the literature by pioneering an investigation into the intricate relationship between personality traits and SWB among young professional athletes, while also exploring the moderating influences of social support and self-esteem. By doing so, this research endeavors to make a substantial contribution to the existing literature on this topic. Moreover, this research contributes theoretically by testing the proposed conceptual model, thus providing practical implications for the families, coaches, and other administrators of young athletes, emphasizing the importance of personality, well-being, SE, and social support.

Literature Review

Personality and SWB

Promoting well-being stands as the foremost objective of psychology. Furthermore, exploring the factors influencing well-being remains a topic of keen interest for researchers, policymakers, and the public at large, aiming to enhance overall happiness (Furnham & Cheng, 2000; Lenderking, 2005; Tay & Diener, 2011). The factors contributing to well-being may yield varied outcomes across diverse samples and cultural contexts (Anglim et al., 2020). In this context, a better understanding of well-being, especially in young professional athletes, is important both for its theoretical contribution to the literature and for its practical implications in helping to develop appropriate clinical interventions.

SWB is individuals’ affective and cognitive evaluations of their lives (Diener, 2009). The affective dimension primarily emphasizes individuals’ experiences of positive and negative emotions, while the cognitive dimension centers on individuals’ assessment of life satisfaction (Diener, 1984). In short, SWB is the subjective belief or feeling of individuals that they lead o good life (Richard & Diener, 2009). In Steel et al.’s (2008) meta-analysis, it was emphasized that personality types are the factors that best predict SWB. Various theories have been proposed at different periods, particularly elucidating the relationship between Neuroticism and SWB. According to Gray’s (1987) reinforcement sensitivity theory, neurotic individuals, characterized by tendencies to experience various negative emotions such as anxiety, nervousness, sadness, and anger, are hypothesized to influence SWB through their negative affectivity. In addition, Tellegen et al. (1988) asserted that genetic components account for approximately 80% of the variance in personal characteristics such as satisfaction, happiness, and irritability. In a different study, Stubbe et al. (2005) stated that 38% of the variance in SWB variables is explained by heritable factors. Numerous studies have indicated that the most significant factor influencing individuals’ SWB is the genetic personality traits they inherently possess (Nes et al., 2006; Soto, 2015; Stubbe et al., 2005). These studies have been supported by systematic reviews conducted at different times (Anglim et al., 2020; Steel et al., 2008).

While our study examines the influence of personality types on SWB, it is important to acknowledge that personality types alone may not fully determine SWB. Thus, key moderator variables may exist that influence the connection between these factors. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate variables that could strengthen or moderate this relationship. Specifically, this study explores how SE and PSS simultaneously affect the relationship between Neuroticism and SWB.

Moderating Role of SE in Personality and SWB

SE can be interpreted as athletes’ awareness of their perception of themselves as valuable athletes, and the degree to which they respect themselves (Cast & Burke, 2002). SE influences how individuals feel about themselves and their overall quality of life (James, 1890; Katsantonis et al., 2023). As an individual’s SE increases, they tend to perceive themselves as more valuable and competent, enhancing their overall life satisfaction and fostering positive emotional experiences. Conversely, a decrease in SE is often associated with an internalized fear of failure, which can heighten feelings of inadequacy or unworthiness. This, in turn, can adversely impact life quality and lead to negative emotional experiences (L. Lu et al., 2001; Mouatsou & Koutra, 2023; Rosenberg, 1965) .

SE emerges as a robust predictor of SWB among both young adults and adolescents (Flynn & MacLeod, 2015; Richard & Diener, 2009; Singh, 2024; Q. Tan et al., 2023). Having high SE is recognized as a significant factor for happiness and is considered a key determinant of life satisfaction (A. Lu et al., 2015; Richard & Diener, 2009; Singh, 2024; Szcześniak et al., 2022). According to Self-Determination Theory fulfilling basic psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—plays a critical role in supporting SWB (Ryan, 2017). High SE helps athletes enhance their perceptions of competence, which can increase their confidence and resilience against negative emotions associated with neuroticism. On the other hand, the need for autonomy allows young athletes to make choices that align with their values, helping them feel that they have control over their actions. This sense of control can contribute to reducing certain negative emotions, such as anxiety, thereby aiding in the increase of SWB. Research consistently demonstrates that increasing self-esteem can enhance resilience against common mental health challenges such as stress, depression, and anxiety while also promoting positive emotions that contribute to higher SWB (B. Chen et al., 2021; Singh, 2024; Solomon et al., 2015).Individuals with high SE possess greater cognitive resources, enabling them to cope more effectively with unsatisfactory conditions (Cast & Burke, 2002; Steele, 1988). Thus, in a competitive sports context, high SE allows athletes to meet their psychological needs, thereby reducing the negative effects of neurotic traits and potentially enhancing their subjective well-being even in the presence of such tendencies.

We can interpret personality types with low or high SE in different ways. Particularly, individuals with low SE are susceptible to being easily affected by mental issues such as stress, depression, and anxiety, which make them more sensitive in this context. Contrary to this, high SE serves as a crucial buffer, effectively mitigating the negative personal traits associated with anxiety, nervousness, and neuroticism among young athletes. By cultivating a strong sense of personal value and competence in their athletic abilities, individuals are better equipped to manage and overcome challenges in their sporting endeavors. This could minimize the decline in athletes’ SWB or, conversely, further enhance SWB as SE increases.

The Moderating Role of PSS in Personality and SWB

Young athletes starting to play in professional leagues are confronted with numerous stressors during the transition process (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007; Pummell et al., 2008; Stambulova, 2017). Given that young athletes are thought to be less capable of coping with stress and adversities (Bebetsos & Antoniou, 2003), the factor of PSS becomes highly crucial in overcoming these challenges (Stambulova et al., 2015). According to the holistic ecological approach, the context, in which they find themselves, influences the talent development and sustainability of young athletes (Krebs, 2009). Therefore, PSS plays a critical role in the development of young athletes’ talents and overall well-being.

PSS refers to the full range of psychological and material support from one’s social network, helping individuals manage stress and various challenges (Cohen, 2004; Thoits, 1995). For young athletes, the main sources of PSS include coaches, teammates, family, and even social media and the press. Various qualitative and quantitative studies on athletes have shown that PSS is an important factor in buffering various stressors (Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010; F. Lu et al., 2016; Sullivan et al., 2020). The feeling of receiving support from others helps individuals develop a positive emotional state, which in turn enhances their psychological response to stress and increases their well-being (Cohen, 2004; Diener, 2009; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).

Additionally, the fact that SE is a motivational and cognitive perception (Kernis, 2003) highlights the important relationship between PSS and SE. According to social identity theory, individuals define themselves through the social groups they feel they belong to, and this sense of belonging significantly impacts SE (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Young athletes have the opportunity to feel valuable and respected through the sense of belonging, positive feedback, and PSS they receive from their teammates and coaches, which contributes to an increase in their SE levels. Furthermore, self-determination theory suggests that fulfilling individuals’ basic psychological needs—namely competence, autonomy, and relatedness—enhances their motivation and boosts their SE (Ryan, 2017). The support young athletes receive from their groups strengthens their sense of competence, helping them feel valuable and respected, thereby increasing their SE. Indeed, studies conducted across different sample groups and continents support this situation (Folayan et al., 2020; Kazi, 2021; Q. Liu et al., 2021). The increase in PSS and SE facilitates coping with mental issues commonly seen in individuals with neurotic personality traits, such as anxiety and mood disorders, thereby enhancing their overall well-being (Cast & Burke, 2002; Leary & Baumeister, 2000; Rosenberg, 1965). These two supportive structures can help individuals enhance their feelings of belonging and competence, acting as a buffer to reduce anxiety and the intensity of negative emotions stemming from neuroticism. Similarly, various studies have concluded that increases in social support and SE can have a buffering effect on neurotic traits, leading to improved life satisfaction and overall well-being (Amestoy et al., 2023; Han et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2021).

In conclusion, this process assists individuals in tolerating the negative emotions arising from neuroticism, minimizing these feelings, and paving the way for an increase in SWB. Thus, high levels of PSS and SE can serve as protective factors in alleviating the negative relationship between neuroticism and SWB.

Current Study

This study explored how SE and PSS jointly influence the relationship between neuroticism and SWB (see Figure 1). Clarifying the investigated model is crucial in preventing adverse mood states and supporting individuals with neuroticism. Understanding the impact of SE and PSS on SWB among young professional athletes contributes significantly to the literature on the enduring research topic of neuroticism. Additionally, it is essential for the development of interventions aimed at enhancing SWB. Given the variety of stressors young professional athletes face due to their circumstances, PSS and SE can reduce negative impacts on SWB.

Figure 1.

Hypothesized conceptual model.

Firstly, a negative relationship between neuroticism and SWB is expected (H1). Secondly, SE is anticipated to reduce the adverse impact of neuroticism on SWB (H2). Thirdly, it is proposed that SE and PSS, when considered individually, may each have limited effects on mitigating the negative relationship between neuroticism and SWB. However, young athletes with high neuroticism are expected to experience higher SWB when they perceive both strong SE and robust PSS. Therefore, this study proposes that PSS and SE jointly moderate the relationship between neuroticism and SWB (H3).

Research indicates that the effects of age on well-being may vary across different age groups (Biermann et al., 2022; Hansen & Blekesaune, 2022). Older and more experienced athletes may possess better coping mechanisms for adverse situations than younger athletes. Furthermore, studies have shown that health status and age significantly impact life satisfaction (Bitzer et al., 2024; Ngamaba, 2017). Particularly among young professional athletes, physical and mental health issues can lead to stress and anxiety. Additionally, income can contribute to future concerns or financial stress, especially in younger athletes. For these reasons, age, income, and health status have been included as control variables. After adjusting for these control variables, it is anticipated that the relationship between neuroticism and well-being in the current study will still be significant.

Method

We initially obtained ethical approval for our study. During the data collection phase, we contacted club managers and team coaches. Over 5 months, data were collected both online and through face-to-face interactions. After obtaining informed consent from the participants, measures of Neuroticism, SE, PSS, positive and negative emotions, life satisfaction inventories, and basic demographic information (e.g., injury history, age, income) were administered. A total of 135 individuals who were deemed inappropriate for the sample or provided inaccurate information were excluded from the study.

The participants include 422 young professional athletes engaged in football, basketball, volleyball, handball, wrestling, and tennis clubs across various cities in Turkey. The participants’ ages spanned from 17 to 23 years, with an average age of 19.75 years (SD = 1.71). Regarding the participants’ educational backgrounds, 41.7% had obtained a university degree, compared to 58.1% who finished high school. Due to the difficulty in obtaining a sufficient sample size for female athletes, who represent less than 10% of the sample, women were not considered in this study. Additionally, it was found that 31.3% of the participants reported current injuries or health problems, while 68.7% reported no current injuries or health issues. The adequacy of the sample size was determined based on the correlation data reported in the study on neuroticism and SWB by Anglim et al. (2020), with a significance level set at α < .05 and power = 0.80. Additionally, calculations using Soper’s (2024) A-priori Sample Size Calculator for Structural Equation Models suggested a minimum sample size of 400 for 2 latent variables and 4 observed variables. Therefore, we can conclude that the sample size for the study is adequate.

Measures

Big Five Inventory (BFI)

To assess Neuroticism in young athletes, the subscale from the BFI, which comprises eight items, was employed as the evaluation method (Benet-Martínez & John, 1998). This scale has yielded acceptable validity and reliability results in Turkish youth and diverse cultures (Schmitt et al., 2007; Sümer et al., 2005). Within the scale, three items related to Neuroticism were reverse-coded. The young athletes used a 7-point Likert scale to indicate their responses. Higher (mean) scores indicate higher levels of Neuroticism (χ² [19, N = 422] = 53.903; p < .01; χ²/df = 2.83; CFI = 0.98; RMSEA = 0.066; 95% CI [0.046, 0.087]; SRMR = 0.020).

Subjective Well-Being

In assessing SWB from both emotional and cognitive perspectives, three components were utilized: life satisfaction, negative feelings, and positive feelings (Diener, 1984). For the cognitive assessment, the Satisfaction with Life Scale was employed, which is a five-item scale measuring an individual’s overall life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985). The young athletes used a 7-point Likert scale to indicate their responses. The scale has demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability results in Turkish youth (Durak et al., 2010). (χ² [4, N = 422] = 7.705; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.92; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.047; 95% CI [0.000, 0.096]; SRMR = 0.014).

For the assessment of emotional well-being, participants completed The Scale for Positive and Negative Experience, a comprehensive tool designed to measure the frequency and intensity of positive as well as negative emotions (Diener et al., 2010). This scale consists of two subscales, each comprising six items, evaluating participants’ positive and negative experiences over the past 4 weeks. The young athletes used a 7-point Likert scale to indicate their responses. Negative feelings were reverse-coded in the scale to reflect their contribution to emotional well-being. The scale has demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability results in Turkish youth (Senol-Durak & Durak, 2019). (χ² [52, N = 422] = 92.488; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.77; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.043; 95% CI [0.028, 0.057]; SRMR = 0.016).

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)

RSES was used to assess the SE of young athletes (Rosenberg, 1965). Elevated scores on this scale reflect higher levels of SE among young individuals. The scale consists of 10 items, with 5 of these items containing negative expressions that are reverse-coded. The young athletes used a 4-point Likert scale to indicate their responses. Acceptable results have been obtained in the validity and reliability study of the scale in Turkish adolescents (Çuhadaroğlu, 1986) (χ² [35, N = 422] = 76.520; p < .01; χ²/df = 2.18; CFI = 0.98; RMSEA = 0.053; 95% CI [0.037, 0.069]; SRMR = 0.027).

Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS)

MSPSS was utilized to assess the levels of perceived social support among young professional athletes (Zimet et al., 1988). The scale consists of a total of 12 items, comprising three different subscales: Significant Other Subscale, Family Subscale, and Friend Subscale, each consisting of 4 items. The young athletes used a 7-point Likert scale to indicate their responses. Higher (mean) scores on the scale imply more PSS. Satisfactory results were obtained in the Turkish validation study of the scale (Eker et al., 2001). (χ² [51, N = 422] = 136.972; p < .01; χ²/df = 2.68; CFI = 0.98; RMSEA = 0.063; 95% CI [0.051, 0.076]; SRMR = 0.018).

Analytic Strategy

In the present study, a model was constructed with Neuroticism as the predictor variable, SWB as the outcome variable, SE as the moderator variable, and PSS as the moderator of SE (Hayes, 2018). Path analysis was employed to determine the moderating effect, utilizing the Maximum Likelihood (ML) method for calculation. The significance of variables in the study was determined using standardized factor values and their corresponding z-scores. Kline’s (2016) recommendations for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) studies, the χ²/df, χ² significance level, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) values were reported. Accordingly, cut-off points were established as χ²/df < 3, CFI < 0.90, RMSEA < 0.08, and SRMR < 0.08 (Brown, 2015; Kline, 2016). To verify the statistical significance of the model and relationships between variables, the bootstrap technique was employed (Preacher & Selig, 2012) utilizing 5,000 resamples with a 95% confidence interval (MacKinnon et al., 2004). Missing data were addressed using pairwise estimation, with less than 10% missing data in all individual variables.

Data analysis for this study utilized R Studio (IBM Corp., 2019; Team, 2021). Structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analyses were performed using the “lavaan” package (Rosseel, 2012), while the “semTools” package (Jorgensen et al., 2021) was utilized for confidence intervals.

Results

Descriptive and Correlation Matrix

Table 1 presents various descriptive statistics for all variables. The normality of the data was assessed using skewness and kurtosis values, which were all within acceptable ranges, indicating that the data for all variables follow a normal distribution (Curran et al., 1996; Kim, 2013). Correlation analysis findings indicate that young athletes exhibiting high levels of neuroticism are more likely to experience low life satisfaction, low SE, low emotional well-being, and low PSS. Conversely, individuals possessing high SE frequently report positive affect, high life satisfaction, and strong PSS.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and the Correlation Between Relevant Variables.

Variable	Mean	SD	CR	AVE	√AVE	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Neuroticism	4.09	1.30	.93	0.64	0.80	1
2. Satisfaction with life	2.88	1.48	.88	0.61	0.78	−0.22**	1
3. Emotional well-being	2.44	1.52	.96	0.72	0.84	−0.15**	0.57**	1
4. Self-esteem	2.02	0.85	.92	0.55	0.74	−0.14**	0.35**	0.34**	1
5. Perceived social support	2.98	1.68	.97	0.73	0.85	−0.15**	0.43**	0.39**	0.60**	1
Control variable
6. Income (season revenue)	580$	13.51	—	—	—	−0.06	0.14**	0.22**	0.11*	0.15**	1
7.Age	18.83	1.91	—	—	—	−0.03	−0.15**	−0.17**	−0.04	0.20	0.17**	1
8. Health status	—	—	—	—	—	0.06	−0.11*	−0.15**	−0.12*	−0.52	0.05	0.01	1
Skewness	—	—	—	—	—	0.36	1.26	1.62	0.83	0.67	—	—	—
Kurtosis	—	—	—	—	—	0.65	1.15	1.80	0.01	−0.59	—	—	—

Note. Health status was encoded using dummy variables, where 1 indicates current injury and 0 indicates no current injury. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; √AVE = square root of the average variance extracted; M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Additionally, a positive and significant relationship was found between athletes’ monthly income and life satisfaction, emotional well-being, SE, PSS, and age. Participants’ age exhibited a negative and significant correlation with satisfaction with life and emotional well-being, while income demonstrated a positive and significant relationship. On the other hand, health status displayed a positive and significant association with life satisfaction, emotional well-being, and SE. Consequently, these variables were incorporated into the analyses as common variables.

Furthermore, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the measurement model of the scales. The results of the analysis revealed acceptable model fit indices (χ² [1,024, N = 422] = 1,705.869; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.66; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.040; 95% CI [0.036, 0.043]; SRMR = 0.036). The factor loadings for each construct ranged from 0.60 to 0.90 and were all statistically significant. Additionally, composite reliability (CR) values exceeded .60, and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values were greater than 0.50 (See Table 1) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2019). Furthermore, no significant issues of multicollinearity or singularity were detected, given that the correlations between the factors were below 0.85 (Kline, 2016). Therefore, convergent validity is deemed established. Discriminant validity was evaluated by comparing the square roots of the AVE values with the correlations among the corresponding variables. As can be seen from Table 1, the √AVE values were higher than all other correlations between the factors. This suggests discriminant validity is achieved (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Moderating Effects of SE and PSS

This study examined the moderating effects of SE and PSS on the relationship between neuroticism and SWB in young professional athletes. Neuroticism, SE, and PSS were included as observed input variables in the model, while SWB was incorporated as the output variable (see Figure 1) (Diener, 2009). Control variables, including age, health status, and income, accounted for approximately 16% of the variance in SWB. As predicted, neuroticism significantly predicted SWB in young athletes. Moreover, the findings indicated that the combined influence of SE and PSS moderated the adverse impact of neuroticism on SWB among young athletes. This suggests that higher levels of these psychological resources may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of neuroticism on well-being.

Table 2 displays all moderator effects. Results suggest that when controlled, SE partially mediates the relationship between Neuroticism and SWB (b = 0.163, p ≤ .050, z = 1.942, 95% CI [−0.000, 0.220]). As a result of this partially significant analysis, slope analysis was conducted for different levels of SE. For young professional athletes with low SE, there is a significant relationship between high Neuroticism and low SWB (b_simple = −0.232, p < .03, z = −2.159, 95% CI [−0.371, −0.018]). However, the same does not hold for high SE (b_simple = −0.165, p = .76, z = −1.774, 95% CI [−0.315, 0.016]). Additionally, PSS significantly and positively predicts SWB. No significant interaction emerged between neuroticism and SE, or between SE and PSS, among young professional athletes.

Table 2.

Results of the Analysis of the Moderating Effects of SE and PSS.

Variables	Subjective well-being
	β	95% CI		Std. err	z-Value	p(>\|z\|)
	β	LL	UL	Std. err	z-Value	p(>\|z\|)
Control variables (step 1)
Age	−.26***	−0.315	−0.096	0.056	−3.673	.000
Income	.30***	0.127	0.345	0.056	4.233	.000
Health status	.18;**	0.050	0.247	0.050	2.980	.003
R ² .16 (satisfaction with life = 0.47/emotional well-being = 0.77)
Model fit index: (χ² [165, N = 422] = 323.247; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.94; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.047; 95% CI [0.039, 0.055]; SRMR = 0.026)
Independent variables (step 2)
Age	−.25***	−0.321	−0.135	0.048	−4.785	.000
Income	.20***	0.096	0.275	0.046	4.070	.000
Health status	.15**	0.049	0.237	0.048	2.990	.003
Neuroticism	−.14*	−0.261	−0.011	0.064	−2.138	.033
SE	.15*	0.001	0.277	0.070	1.981	.048
PSS	.39***	0.218	0.503	0.073	4.955	.000
R ² .46 (Satisfaction with life = 0.62/emotional well-being = 0.58)
Model fit index: (χ² [213, N = 422] = 395.005; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.85; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.045; 95% CI [0.038, 0.052]; SRMR = 0.028)
Interactions variables (step 3)
Age	−.22***	−0.281	−0.110	0.043	−4.506	.000
Income	.18***	0.083	0.238	0.039	4.068	.000
Health status	.13*	0.027	0.197	0.043	2.590	.010
Neuroticism	−.19*	−0.342	−0.003	0.087	−1.99	.047
SE	.13	−0.021	0.256	0.071	1.667	.096
PSS	.38***	0.159	0.500	0.087	3.785	.000
Neuroticism × SE	.16	−0.000	0.220	0.057	1.942	.050
Neuroticism × PSS	.03	−0.131	0.179	0.079	0.302	.763
SE × PSS	−.01	−0.104	0.091	0.050	−0.134	.876
Neuroticism × SE × PSS	.191*	0.009	0.183	0.044	2.092	.036
R ² .52 (Satisfaction with life = 0.57/emotional well-being = 0.63)
Model fit index: (χ² [277, N = 422] = 492.683; p < .01; χ²/df = 1.77; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.043; 95% CI [0.037, 0.049]; SRMR = 0.033)

Note. Health status was encoded using dummy variables, where 1 indicates current injury and 0 indicates no current injury. Std. err = standard error, Standardized beta coefficients (β) are reported.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

When Tablo 2 is examined, it is revealed that SE and PSS, along with neuroticism, concurrently moderate the relationship between SWB of young athletes. The results are depicted in Figure 2. Analysis using simple slope tests reveals that when both SE and PSS are low, high levels of neuroticism in young athletes significantly predict lower SWB (b_simple = −0.293, p < .05, z = −2.078, 95% CI [−0.423, −0.012]). However, when the SE and PSS of young athletes are high, high levels of neuroticism do not significantly predict a decrease in SWB(b_simple = −0.105, p = 0.072, z = −1.799, 95% CI [−0.265, 0.011]). Significant effects of neuroticism in young athletes were observed in conditions of both high SE and low PSS (b_simple = −0.214, p < .05, z = −2.09, 95% CI [−0.355, −0.004]), as well as low SE and high PSS (b_simple = −0.183, p < .05, z = −1.96, 95% CI [−0.001, −0.190]). Additional analyses (Post-hoc) were carried out to investigate the differences in slopes (Dawson & Richter, 2006). According to Table 3, “slope (1),” corresponding to young athletes with high SE and PSS, shows a significant difference compared to the other three slopes. In contrast, the slopes “slope (2),” “slope (3),” and “slope (4)” are not significantly different from one another.

Figure 2.

The three-way interaction on young athletes’ SWB between neuroticism, SE, and PSS.

Table 3.

Differences in the three-way interaction’s slope.

Slope comparisons	Slope diff.	t-Value	Prob. value	95% CI
(1) and (2)	0.282	2.882	0.004	0.090, 0.474
(1) and (3)	0.491	4.056	0.000	0.254, 0.729
(1) and (4)	0.307	3.186	0.002	0.118, 0.497
(2) and (3)	0.209	1.121	0.263	−0.157, 0.575
(2) and (4)	0.025	0.241	0.810	−0.181, 0.232
(3) and (4)	−0.184	−1.064	0.288	−0.522, 0.155

Discussion

Sports psychology research has long been focused on optimizing athletes’ performance and achieving maximum efficiency. Particularly in the last two decades, the importance of being mentally prepared to enhance athletes’ performance has been emphasized in various studies (Giles et al., 2020; von Treuer & Reynolds, 2017; Williamon & Antonini Philippe, 2020). Athletes’ well-being is the primary focus in ensuring athletes reach their peak performance and is a popular field of study. Numerous studies have been conducted on different sample groups through various variables (Giles et al., 2020; Hill et al., 2015; Sebbens et al., 2016; Stambulova, 2017). However, for young athletes with neuroticism, how they can enhance their subjective well-being and performance independently of their personalities is a less clear issue. This study contributes to the existing literature by examining the relationship between neuroticism and SWB in young athletes and investigating the moderating effects of SE and PSS on this relationship. Findings indicate that young athletes with high neuroticism are more likely to have low levels of SWB, even after controlling important third factors such as age, income, and health condition. Young athletes with high levels of neuroticism and low SE are more likely to experience low SWB than those with high SE. In young athletes, higher levels of neuroticism strongly predicted lower levels of SE and PSS—or just one of them—when both were low. On the contrary, the relationship between neuroticism and SWB became non-significant when both SE and PSS were high.

This study is the first to investigate the relationship between neuroticism and SWB in young athletes. As expected, neuroticism significantly and negatively predicted SWB, even after controlling relevant covariates (age, health status, income). Neuroticism, in previous studies, has affected SWB in different sample groups (L. Chen & Zhang, 2022; Fadda & Scalas, 2016; Fan et al., 2022; Otonari et al., 2012). As far as we are aware, the effect of neuroticism on SWB in young professional athletes has not been examined. Consistent with Eysenck’s (1963) theory of the biological basis of personality traits, high-stress factors in the environment of young professional athletes may have further strengthened this relationship. This study distinguishes itself from previous research by broadening the scope of current studies by examining the concurrent moderating effects of PSS and SE. Additionally, our findings indicate that SE and PSS yield similar effects across different cultural contexts. Studies conducted in non-Western societies, including Asia and Latin America, also highlight the positive impacts of both SE (Iqbal & Dar, 2022; Sánchez-Castro et al., 2024; Q. Tan et al., 2023) and PSS (Cobo-Rendón et al., 2020; Eatamadi & Napier, 2023; C. Liu et al., 2022) on SWB. These parallels suggest that our study’s results may be applicable across diverse cultural settings, offering a more comprehensive understanding of young athletes’ SWB. This cross-cultural perspective further emphasizes the value of our study’s contributions to sports psychology.

Following this analysis, the study examined whether SE moderates the relationship between neuroticism and SWB in young athletes. In previous studies, SE has been identified as a mediator between personality and SWB, demonstrating its significant predictive role in SWB (Fadda et al., 2015; Nawa & Yamagishi, 2024; C.-S. Tan et al., 2017; Waltz & Chou, 2023). However, this study is pioneering in demonstrating how SE, as a moderator, mitigates the adverse effects of neuroticism on SWB, distinguishing itself from previous research. In the study, young athletes with low SE were found to have a significant relationship between high neuroticism and low SWB. However, this relationship was not significant for young athletes with high SE. This phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that both neuroticism (characterized by anxiety, stress, and emotional fluctuations) and the increased stressors faced by young athletes are likely to diminish their SWB, especially when SE is low. In such cases, this can make it difficult for young athletes to focus on training and competitions and impair their performance. If it continues, it can hinder the potential of young athletes, especially in the future. In contrast, young athletes with high SE can be aware of their abilities and see themselves as valuable, so they can easily cope with the negative conditions of possible neuroticism characteristics and show a tendency to be more resilient.

In young athletes, SE can be said to play a moderating role, partially attenuating the relationship between neuroticism and SWB. However, this effect may not always be sufficient on its own. Therefore, the study investigated whether PSS in young athletes moderates the relationship between neuroticism and SWB and the moderating role of SE. In contrast to our predictions, PSS alone could not regulate the relationship between neuroticism and SWB. This result was unexpected from the perspective of PSS theory (Vaux, 1988). In a study by Siedlecki et al. (2014), it was observed that the association between SWB and PSS was further weakened when controlling the personality trait of extraversion compared to other personality traits. This was related to the higher social engagement of extroverted individuals. From the perspective of our study, elevated neuroticism in young athletes could potentially impair their social abilities due to the stress and anxiety they experience. Moreover, young athletes with low or high SE may exhibit varying responses based on their social environment.

The study further investigated the existence of a three-way interaction between neuroticism, PSS, and SE in predicting the SWB of young athletes. The findings indicated that, in young athletes, the relationship between neuroticism and SWB was simultaneously mediated by SE and PSS. Specifically, when both SE and PSS were high among young athletes, the relationship between neuroticism and SWB became nonsignificant. Additionally, when both SE and PSS were low, or when one was low and the other was high, higher neuroticism still significantly predicted decreases in SWB. Thus, regardless of whether PSS is low or high, high neuroticism predicts SWB in young athletes with low SE. For young athletes with high SE, the relationship between neuroticism and SWB varies depending on perceived high and low levels of PSS. This variability can be attributed to the strong predictive power of SE on young athletes (Cheng & Furnham, 2003; Diener, 1984; Erol & Orth, 2011; Rosenberg, 1965). Young athletes with low self-esteem might perceive themselves as inadequate and unworthy. In addition, those who exhibit high neuroticism will likely experience reduced life satisfaction and happiness, leading to a decline in SWB. As a result, regardless of the level of PSS they receive, young athletes demonstrating neuroticism and low SE are prone to lower SWB. Specifically, low SE in athletes can manifest anxiety and depression, thereby bringing about social isolation, diminished self-confidence, and a lack of motivation. However, young athletes with high SE may perceive themselves as more competent and valuable in their chosen sports discipline, with a heightened awareness of their abilities. Despite experiencing high levels of neuroticism, they may easily mitigate certain issues such as anxiety by recognizing their worth and significance. Athletes with high levels of PSS and SE can receive comfort or encouragement from family, peer groups, or significant individuals when experiencing somatic symptoms, low self-confidence, or emotional fluctuations associated with neuroticism. As a result, their happiness and life satisfaction may increase. Thus, when both SE and levels of PSS are high among young athletes, they can suppress some symptoms of neuroticism, rendering the relationship between neuroticism and SWB insignificant. The findings suggest that the perceived level of PSS moderates the relationship between neuroticism and SWB to a certain extent, depending on the level of SE among young athletes.

This study contributes to understanding whether neuroticism in young athletes significantly predicts and reduces SWB states such as life satisfaction and happiness, and whether this relationship varies depending on SE and PSS. However, it is important to consider certain limitations when interpreting the findings. Firstly, this study was conducted specifically with a sample of professional young athletes. Therefore, it is likely to vary across different sample groups. On the other hand, this research is a cross-sectional study. Such studies decrease the likelihood of explaining causal relationships. Data collected over a specific time period only provides a snapshot, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about which variable affects the other. Additionally, the time factor has not been taken into account. A cross-sectional design does not provide information on how interactions between variables change over time. Furthermore, measurements based on self-reported data may carry the risk of bias. The way participants evaluate themselves may be misleading due to social expectations or other influences. This situation may affect the reliability of the data obtained. Although reaching and collecting data from professional athletes may be challenging, longitudinal studies can provide more reliable results regarding causal effects. An important limitation of the study is that life satisfaction and emotional states can be influenced by various variables such as self-compassion, psychological resilience, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence as mediators or moderators (Bhattarai et al., 2021; Neff, 2011; Tingaz et al., 2022). These variables can significantly impact individuals’ ability to cope with stress and their overall life satisfaction. Therefore, the absence of these measured variables may limit the generalizability of our findings. Future studies are recommended to consider these types of variables. Notably, including significant variables such as self-compassion (Neff, 2011) could lead to more comprehensive models. Lastly, in this study, SE and PSS were examined as moderators, which mitigated the negative effects of neuroticism. In future research, increasing the number of variables used as moderators could be beneficial for exploring the underlying mechanisms of the relationship between neuroticism and SWB.

Based on the practical implications of the study findings, designing psychological interventions that could enhance SWB among young professional athletes would be facilitated. Firstly, various strategies can be developed to manage the negative effects of neuroticism in athletes. For instance, techniques such as mindfulness or meditation could be employed (Tingaz et al., 2022). Furthermore, coaches can establish a supportive and encouraging environment for young athletes where neuroticism is prevalent, by understanding their specific needs. In doing so, they can elicit peak performance from promising young athletes and ensure the sustainability of their performance in the future. In this context, coaches can specifically prepare training programs that focus on athletes’ strengths. This approach not only supports young athletes but also allows them to develop their skills, gain confidence, and enhance their self-esteem. In addition, providing continuous feedback to athletes can make them feel more valued. On the other hand, sports psychologists can implement techniques such as meditation and mindfulness, or organize group therapy sessions to strengthen social support networks. These therapies can increase social support, reduce anxiety, and enhance self-esteem, thereby improving the overall well-being of athletes, while also mitigating the effects of neuroticism.

Conclusion

Maximizing the performance and potential of young athletes is a continuous and prevailing research focus in sports psychology. However, mental health issues, particularly prevalent among young and professional athletes, often lead to consistently low performance and, ultimately, the departure of promising young athletes from sports activities, even at the outset of their careers. This study contributes to the literature by focusing on the fundamental relationship between neuroticism and SWB in young athletes, examining a complex model. Even after controlling the essential variables that influence SWB, such as age, health status, and income, it is likely that young athletes with high levels of neuroticism will exhibit low levels of SWB. The likelihood of low SWB in young athletes exhibiting high levels of neuroticism, especially those with low SE, is higher than that of those with high SE. In addition, young athletes with high levels of neuroticism exhibit a significant decrease in SWB when either their SE or PSS is low. Contrarily, this effect diminishes in significance when both SE and PSS are high among young athletes, suggesting a buffering effect against the impact of neuroticism on SWB. These findings offer a strong foundation for understanding the role of neuroticism in predicting SWB. Simultaneous interventions can be implemented to increase both SE and PSS, to increase the SWB of young athletes.

Footnotes

Authors’ Contributions

Article writing: SS (Introduction/Literature Review/Methods/Result/Discussion/Practical implications/Limitations and directions for future research).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study design complies with the Declaration of Helsinki (2013) ethical standards. The ethics committee approval for the present study was obtained from the Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee at Batman University (Date/Approval 09.09.2023/05-32).

ORCID iD

Serdar Solmaz

Availability of Data and Material

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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