Understanding Expert EFL Teachers’ Motivation for Professional Development: How School Culture Matters

Teachers’ Motivation For PD

Broadly defined, teacher PD is “a term used to describe all the activities in which teachers engage during the course of a career which are designed to enhance their work” (Day & Sachs, 2004, p. 3). Since teacher PD is an ongoing and lifelong endeavour, teachers’ motivation for engaging in it significantly influences their choice to participate (Lan, 2022).

There is a notable lack of literature exploring teachers’ motivation for engaging in PD. A handful of studies, including J. Yang (2021) and Peng and Zhang (2024), have examined motivational factors related to teachers’ participation in PD and how these engagements influence changes in their teaching practices. Additionally, a few other studies, such as those by Admiraal et al. (2016) and Postholm (2018), have investigated how school contexts facilitate teachers in implementing changes in their teaching. Overall, research has indicated that teachers’ motivation to engage in PD are primarily driven by their ability to implement changes, their expertise, and the values they ascribe to the PD program (Thomson & Turner, 2015). Furthermore, autonomous motivation has been positively correlated with teacher learning outcomes, while controlled motivation has either shown negative associations or no effect on outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Yuan et al., 2016).

School Culture

The concept of school culture has attracted the attention of educational sociologists since the 1930s. However, it is quite challenging to define school culture and even harder to operationalize in research terms (Bell & Kent, 2010), just as Deal & Peterson (1999) stated that a universally accepted definition of school culture did not exist. In educational research, school culture is often defined, from an anthropological approach, as the group’s knowledge, beliefs, values, traditions, rituals, symbols, and language (Deal & Peterson, 2009).

Regarding school cultural elements, many scholars in educational research utilized Schein’s (1985) classification of cultural levels. Schein’s model consisted of three layers: assumptions, values and norms, and artifacts and practices, each differing in their visibility within organizations. Assumptions, the least tangible level of school culture, referred to taken-for-granted beliefs that school members share (Schein, 1985), which form the core of school culture. The second level consisted of values and norms. Values reflected what was conceived to be worthy of striving for in school (Maslowski, 2001), and were often translated into norms for collective and individual behaviour (Stolp & Smith, 1995). The third level was composed of artifacts and practices, which were visualized basic assumptions, values and behavioural norms of a school, such as school myths, symbols, customs, ceremonies, and rituals in school. It has been identified from previous studies that school culture was an important factor that might transform a school (Mercer & Dörnyei, 2020), facilitate or hinder student achievement (Vidal et al., 2024) and affect teacher PD (Louis & Lee, 2016).

School Cultural Factors Associated with Teachers’ Motivation For PD

In recent years, the dynamic interplay between individuals and their contexts has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers, as the development of an individual is increasingly seen as being dynamically shaped through discursive interactions among people within specific sociocultural environments (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). Hence, social-contextual factors are deemed significant only to the extent that they are perceived through an individual’s lens, as individual motivation serves as the immediate impetus for human behaviour (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021).

Several investigations have indicated that the perceptions that teachers hold about workplace conditions in schools may potentially influence their motivation to engage in professional activities (Enthoven et al., 2023, Geijsel et al., 2009, Postholm, 2018), and that school culture might define what a ‘good’ teacher might be and do, and govern teachers to strive for a “quality teacher” (Sullivan et al., 2021). Zhang et al. (2021) investigated the influence of school-level factors on teacher PD. Similarly, Dickhäuser et al. (2021) identified some school cultural characteristics potentially associated with teachers’ motivation for PD, including social norms and values, leadership practices, and learning structures. Acar and Erozan (2024) further discovered that a poor general organizational atmosphere and unfavourable work attitudes among colleagues caused a decline in teacher motivation. McMillan et al. (2016) offered a broader perspective on the factors that stimulated and hindered teachers’ motivation for ongoing PD, categorizing them into three levels: personal, school-related, and systemic. They contended that factors at these levels could either bolster or impede both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of teachers’ motivation to engage in teacher learning.

These cultural conditions have been described as ranging from individualistic to collaborative (Hargreaves, 1994) or from restrictive to expansive (Fuller & Unwin, 2004). The frequently mentioned school cultural factors encompass the existence of a shared school culture, a supportive environment for teacher PD, teachers’ active participation in decision-making processes (Admiraal et al., 2016), and supportive interpersonal relationships (McMillan et al., 2016). For instance, Holzberger and Prestele (2021) reported the evaluation of schools’ collaboration by school principals and the staff. Watt et al. (2021) explored teachers’ perceptions of the pressure and support they received from their principals. These studies all acknowledged that context matters for teacher motivation for PD and that school cultural conditions can be controlled in order to improve teacher PD. However, how the workplace might support or hinder teacher motivation is not clear.

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that people are inclined to pursue personal development when they are in environments that foster autonomy, competence, and relatedness—three basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Autonomy refers to the desire for self-governance in one’s experiences and behaviours, which is linked to a sense of volition, harmony, and wholeness. Competence pertains to the belief in one’s ability to perform effectively in significant life domains, fostering a belief in one’s potential for success and development. Relatedness involves the desire to feel connected and to belong (Ryan & Deci, 2017). These needs are considered essential for healthy personal growth (Ryan & Deci, 2002), prompting individuals to align their behaviours to enhance social integration (relatedness), comprehension of their environment (competence), and a cohesive sense of identity (autonomy). Interference with any of these needs can undermine motivation, leading individuals to sometimes seek fulfilment of these needs subconsciously (Bouwma-Gearhart, 2012). The fulfilment or obstruction of these psychological needs can result in varied developmental paths.

Meeting these psychological needs is vital for motivation, as they act as “inherent psychological nutrients necessary for continuous psychological growth, wholeness, and well-being” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 229). Considering SDT’s focus on intrinsic motivation and internalization, it is well-positioned for educational applications, emphasizing the importance of interest, enjoyment, mastery, growth, and success, as well as the sense of belonging in a supportive and respectful setting (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Consequently, understanding teacher motivation, which can vary by context, can be significantly informed by SDT (Proudfoot, 2022).

Based on the review of existing studies, Schein (1985)’ classification of cultural levels, that is, assumptions, values, and artifacts, and three basic psychological needs of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000) were adopted as the theoretical framework of the current study. By exploring the way how school culture affects EFL teachers’ motivation for PD, this study seeks to understand the interaction between school culture and teacher motivation. The following two research questions were explored:

Research Context

The present study was conducted at Riverside School (pseudonym), a municipal key high school located in downtown Shanghai, China. Established as one of the first experimental model high schools, it was designated by the Ministry of Education in 2007 as one of the nation’s 11 prestigious schools. The rationale for choosing the case school was based on the following considerations: First, teachers of the case school have won many honorary titles, and EFL teachers have made remarkable achievements in teacher PD. Second, Riverside School has formed a unique culture of cultivating the research competence of both students and teachers, produced many nationally recognized teachers, and achieved great success in teacher PD (Q. Yang & Sun, 2005). Third, with a history of more than 90 years, Riverside School has cultivated considerable talented graduates, who turned out to be elites in different walks of life, including famous politicians, scientists, educators, as well as writers and artists, and thus has been recognized as a cradle of senior talents.

The time when the author collected data, the school had 154 staff members, including eight special-grade teachers (teji jiaoshi), six full senior teachers, and 51 senior teachers. There were 22 classes and around 660 students in the case school. The English teaching and research group (TRG) consisted of 22 teachers, with one full senior and special-grade teacher and nine teachers with senior titles. The profiles of the teachers in English TRG are displayed in Table 1.

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Table 1.

Profiles of Teachers in English TRG.

Gender		Titles		Ages
Male	3	Senior	10	Over 35	14
Female	19	Junior	12	Below 35	8

Participants

As this study aims to understand why Riverside School can achieve such success in teacher PD from the perspective of school culture, expert EFL teachers who had been awarded the honorary title of special-grade teachers were recruited. In China, special-grade teachers are awarded to expert teachers with outstanding achievements in basic education (J. Wang, 2017), so their stories can reveal how school culture facilitates teacher PD. Therefore, the three EFL teacher with the title of special-grade teachers in English TRG, with Chang, Wang and Yang as pseudonyms, were invited to participate in this study. The profiles of the participants are displayed in Table 2.

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Table 2.

Profiles of the Participants.

Name	Gender	Age	Years of teaching	Degree	Professional title	Grades taught	Administrative position
Chang	Male	39	17	Master	Special-grade teachers	Grade 1
Yang	Male	46	22	Bachelor	Special-grade teachers	Resigned	Former TRG leader
Wang	Female	60	37	Bachelor	Special-grade teachers	Rehired; Grade 2	Former TRG leader

Data Collection

Data collection lasted for about a year, from July 2021 to July 2022. After giving the participants the consent forms to fill in, the data were collected through interviews, documents and observations. The interviews were adopted as the primary data collection of this study to gain thick descriptions and personal accounts from participants. The purpose of interviews was to understand the participants’ professional history and the significant events in their work to explore the interaction between school culture and their PD. In order to develop the interview questions, the author first gathered background information about the case school and the three participating teachers, followed by observing several school activities with the approval of the school principal. The interview protocols were formulated according to the theoretical framework, that is, Schein’s classification of cultural levels and SDT, and the research question of the present study. The interview questions (see Supplemental Appendix) mainly focused on the process of EFL teachers’ PD, their perceived affordances from colleagues and the school, and their comments on their school culture, such as “Could you please briefly describe the important events in your PD?” and “What support did you receive from your colleagues or the school in your PD?”

All interviews were conducted in Chinese for convenience, recorded with the permission of the interviewees, and transcribed verbatim on a speech recognition platform (https://www.iflyrec.com). Then, the transcriptions were sent via WeChat to the three participants for member checking to ensure transcription accuracy. The total amount of the interview data was 40,338 words.

Documents were collected to trace the case school’ history and important events, which mainly included public records and personal documents concerning school culture and teacher PD. The documents assembled were: (a) reports (paper or electronic) on faculty and student activities of the case school, and (b) school regulations on teacher development, teaching activities, teacher research, and school culture. The resulting dataset consisted of three entries with 21,562 words in total.

The author observed school activities to explore its school culture and topics for interviews. The observed school activities included staff meetings, the Annual Research Conference, and English TRG meetings. School ceremonies, including school opening/graduation ceremonies, and school celebrations on Teachers’ Day, were also observed. In addition, the observed school rituals mainly referred to school communication rituals and classroom teaching rituals. The observation focused on how the school celebrated its important achievements, how the participants dealt with teaching and research, and how they interacted with colleagues and students. The author kept observation logs, which counted 10,831 words.

Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted in Chinese for operational convenience. Selected excerpts were then translated into English by the author and cross-checked with the original interviewees for accuracy. Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework and involved multiple stages to ensure transparency and depth. First, all interview transcripts, observational notes, and documents were read repeatedly for familiarization. In the first-cycle coding, a deductive approach was applied, using the three basic psychological needs from SDT (autonomy, competence, relatedness) and Schein’s cultural layers (assumptions, values, artifacts) as sensitizing concepts. Segments of text that illustrated these concepts were coded accordingly.

Next, an inductive approach was integrated to identify codes and patterns emerging beyond the theoretical framework. For instance, codes such as “flexible timetable,”“peer support,” and “contest-driven recognition” emerged from the data rather than pre-set categories. These codes were then clustered into broader categories through iterative comparison (e.g., “institutional flexibility” grouped codes related to autonomy support).

Finally, themes were developed by linking these categories to the research questions and SDT constructs (e.g., “autonomy satisfaction through flexible structures,”“competence growth via external opportunities”). To illustrate, the code “mentorship outside school” was grouped under “external learning opportunities,” contributing to the theme of “competence satisfaction.” Throughout this process, the coding scheme was refined in consultation with two colleagues experienced in qualitative research, and two participants reviewed the coding of their own transcripts for accuracy (See Table 3).

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Table 3.

Themes, Codes and Examples.

Themes	Codes	Examples
Assumptions	A shared vision	By building a research-oriented school culture, the school meant to achieve teacher-student co-development.
Values and norms	Learning-centered leadershipInnovation promotionSchool collaboration	In our school, teachers of different career stages are offered chances to learn.To him, those who just followed him would have no future, and only those who kept innovating in teaching could survive.Our TRG is a family. We support and help each other on almost everything.
Artifacts and practices	The provision of various resources	The school helped me a lot when I applied a senior professional title.
Autonomy satisfaction	Autonomy in teachingAutonomy in researchAutonomy in teacher PD	I could choose my favorite teaching materials, which was not a common practice in Chinese middle schools.Our former group leader encouraged us to seek evidence for arguments and helped us to do what we were good at.We were not supposed to replicate other special-grade teachers.
Competence satisfaction	Studying abroadTeaching competitionsMentorship	I benefited a lot from the teaching experience in Britain.Chang won the first prize in the teaching competition early in his career which guaranteed him a smooth and quick development.… I depended on my mentor for almost everything.
Relatedness satisfaction	The supportive leadershipThe harmonious relationship among colleaguesThe friendship with students	I was fortunate to be offered the chance that year thanks to the support of school leaders.Young teachers can benefit from keeping in contact with these competent veteran teachers…I must dress decently to bring the students’ sense of beauty.

During the coding process, any uncertainty about interpreting particular excerpts was discussed with knowledgeable others. Two of the participants were invited to comment on the coding of their interview data, and both reported that the coding accurately described what they had reported in their interviews.

In addition to interviews, data from observations and documents were systematically analysed to triangulate the findings and strengthen the validity of interpretations. For example, observations of school rituals, staff meetings, and research activities provided contextual evidence of the research-oriented culture described by participants. Documentary evidence, such as school development plans and policy documents on teacher learning, was examined to confirm the alignment between institutional practices and participants’ narratives. These multiple sources allowed us to cross-check themes and ensure that interpretations were grounded in a range of evidence, thereby reducing over-reliance on self-reported data.

School Cultural Factors Conducive To Teachers’ Motivation For PD

The data analysis demonstrates that a research-oriented school culture prevails in the case school, which effectively fosters EFL teachers’ motivation for PD. This culture manifests across three levels, following Schein’s (1985) cultural framework (assumptions, values, and artefacts): at the assumption level through a shared vision of teacher- student co-development; at the values level through learning-centred leadership, innovation promotion, and institutional collaboration; and at the artifacts level through the provision of various resources.

Autonomy Satisfaction

The participants’ autonomy needs were satisfied by the autonomy in teaching, research and teacher PD at the case school.

Competence Satisfaction

The school satisfied teachers’ needs through offering them opportunities for teacher learning, namely, studying abroad, teaching competitions and mentorship.

Relatedness Satisfaction

The supportive leadership and harmonious relationship with both colleagues and students contributed to participants’ relatedness satisfaction.

A Positive School Culture Model For Teacher PD Motivation

This study indicates the significance of a shared vision for teacher PD motivation. A shared school vision is a characteristic of effective schools (Glickman et al., 2007), directs positive school change (Fullan, 2001), and ideally guides quality teacher PD (Tallerico, 2005). Consistent with Moraal et al. (2020), the current study suggests that a clear and explicit school vision could be related to a culture of mutual trust and joint work in which teachers carry out practical professionalization activities. Schools might contribute to increased teacher PD by harmonizing the values held by teachers with the school vision through leader behaviours, and explicit school expectations (Arifin et al., 2014). When the agreement between the school’s and teachers’ interests can be reached, teachers can have more intrinsic motivation towards realizing the school’s vision. In the sampled school, teacher and student development are valued, and teacher research advocacy suggests the way to achieve the goal. The explicit school expectations of teacher research drive teacher engagement in teaching experiments, resulting in teacher PD. In Riverside School, the research-oriented school vision, advocating the development of students, teachers, and the school by engaging in research, is specific and achievable. Furthermore, the inclusion of teacher development in school vision is transformative because school visions in most schools focus only on student learning, with teacher development being largely ignored. The emphasis on teacher development in the case school serves as an incentive to motivate teachers to engage in teacher research for student development and their PD.

This shared vision satisfies teachers’ need for relatedness by aligning individual goals with collective school objectives, and for autonomy by providing a clear but flexible framework within which teachers can act purposefully. Such alignment strengthens internalization of extrinsic expectations, facilitating the transition towards autonomous motivation as posited by SDT.

Consistent with previous literature on school leadership, this study reveals that school leaders could help to create a culture by bringing a cause to the attention of a group of people to significantly impact teachers’ PD motivation (Kulophas & Hallinger, 2020). In China, principals prioritize their managerial and political roles due to the school’s hierarchical structure and high power-distance culture (Liu et al., 2016). However, things are quite different in Riverside School since there is a tradition of valuing the critical role of teacher PD in student learning and school improvement. Learning-centred leadership primarily addresses teachers’ need for competence through structured growth opportunities and feedback, while also fostering relatedness through trust and collaborative planning. By creating an environment of respect and support, leadership practices help teachers experience volition and confidence—key prerequisites for integrated regulation under SDT.

The results of this study support the argument that curriculum innovation can be an effective way for teachers’ professional growth (Silver et al., 2019). Encouraging innovation nurtures autonomy by granting teachers the freedom to experiment and make pedagogical choices, while also reinforcing competence as they master new practices. This interplay demonstrates how cultural affordances can move teachers from controlled to autonomous forms of motivation. On the other hand, unsuccessful curriculum innovations might hinder teacher development, which is reported by Stolk et al. (2011), who found that teachers were only partially empowered to design a new unit. It indicates the critical role of a supportive school culture in teaching innovations and teacher development.

The finding is consistent with that of Evans et al. (2006), who argue that an expansive learning environment, where opportunities to participate in many different communities of practice are offered, enables teachers to engage in various groups and networks to collaborate with colleagues. Collaboration meets teachers’ relatedness needs by embedding them in professional communities, while peer feedback and co-learning enhance competence. These dual satisfactions create fertile ground for autonomous motivation, consistent with SDT’s emphasis on social-contextual supports. In order to create and sustain collaborative teacher learning, deliberate work is needed since not all collaborations are effective; some even block changes or inhibit advancement (Opfer & Pedder, 2011).

Material and human resources function as structural enablers of competence and autonomy, providing both the tools and flexibility needed for teachers to pursue meaningful PD. When such resources signal institutional trust, they also contribute to relatedness, reinforcing the motivational ecosystem. The current study also suggests that material culture constitutes an essential source for understanding the past of schools, which accords with the findings of Admiraal et al. (2021). In the case school, the achievements in school history constitute an essential aspect of positive school culture, which might increase teachers’ self-confidence in PD. Moreover, human resources serve as the foundation for shaping a positive school culture, which prove to be helpful for teacher PD motivation. The significance of human resources is also recognized in literature such as Firestone et al. (2005), who found that school differences in using human resources affected the planning of teacher PD. Therefore, schools should provide adequate resources to shape a school culture conducive to teacher PD.

This study’s findings have confirmed that teacher PD motivation cannot be understood without investigating the characteristics of the school context (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). To enunciate the intricate dynamics of how a positive school culture influences EFL teacher PD motivation, the following data-driven model presents characteristics of a positive school culture and its interactions with EFL teacher PD motivation (see Figure 1).

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Figure 1.

A positive school culture model for teacher PD motivation.

As demonstrated in Figure 1, a positive school culture consists of three systems: macrosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. The macrosystem refers to a shared vision of teacher-student co-development, which indirectly influences EFL teacher PD motivation. The mesosystem, namely, learning-centred leadership, directly affects EFL teachers’ basic psychological needs and PD motivation and is guided by the shared vision in the macrosystem. The microsystem consists of three elements: innovation, collaboration, and resources, which have direct interaction with EFL teacher PD motivation and serve as ways of satisfying teachers’ basic psychological needs and leading to their autonomous motivation for PD. On the other hand, the improved teacher PD motivation makes teacher development a common language among EFL teachers, leading to a positive school culture.

Factors Influencing the Formulation of a Positive Culture

In light of the motivator for teacher PD, the results of this study suggest an association between positive school culture and teachers’ enhanced motivation for PD. While the findings indicate that certain cultural affordances—such as flexible scheduling, structured PD plans, and collaborative networks—coincided with teachers’ motivational development, the qualitative design does not allow us to conclusively establish causation. Instead, the evidence should be interpreted as illustrative of how participants perceived these cultural conditions as influential in their professional growth (Enthoven et al., 2023).

The three cases indicate that, during the initial teaching stage, external support provided by the school is vital for teachers (Lyu & Li, 2025), whether they have strong motivation for PD or not. Helping novice teachers recognize the significance of professional growth and offering them professional guidance can stimulate their PD motivation (Schwarz-Franco & Hadar, 2024). Therefore, support from authoritative figures, such as school leaders and capable mentors, in the initial teaching process will reduce the pressure on young teachers, shorten their adaptation period and enhance their confidence in PD.

The data of this study also show that school culture plays a crucial part in teachers’ sustaining motivation for PD from the perspective of associating the school values such as students’ holistic development and collective honour. In the case school, students’ innovative spirits and holistic development are valued instead of solely focusing on students’ grades, which is not a common practice in the exam-oriented culture. Therefore, implementing quality-oriented education and advocating joint participation in research by teachers and students at the case school contribute to the formation of sustaining motivation for teacher PD.

However, nurturing such motivation is a challenging endeavour. According to SDT, such motivation arises only in environments that fulfil individuals’ psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in their endeavours (Deci et al., 2017). In simpler terms, to ignite teachers’ motivation for PD, it is crucial for them to be empowered by autonomous motivational regulations as outlined by SDT. This holds particular significance for EFL teachers in China, who are often burdened by the intense pressures of exam-oriented education (J. Yang, 2021).

Consistent with Tsui (2009), this study also found that the development of expert EFL teachers’ expertise has been characterized by constant engagement in experimentation and exploration to extends their competence. But the present study went further to explore what kind of school cultural affordances are critical for teacher PD motivation and showed the significance of a supportive environment for teacher development. This can partly answer the question of how to bridge the big gap between teachers’ needs and the contextual support raised by J. Yang (2021). The research-oriented school culture encourages teachers to engage in teaching experiments and guarantees teachers’ autonomy and competence satisfaction with external supports such as mentors and workshops. With basic psychological needs being satisfied, teachers exhibit more intrinsic motivation and internalize school cultural values, resulting in greater behavioural effectiveness and psychological well-being.

While this study highlights the positive affordances of a research-oriented school culture, it is important to acknowledge that such a culture may also create tensions. For instance, two participants reported feeling pressure to maintain their status through continual research output and competition success, which occasionally led to stress and reduced autonomy. Similarly, institutional expectations for innovation sometimes clashed with teachers’ personal teaching philosophies, creating moments of friction. These findings suggest that supportive cultural elements can coexist with structural constraints, and future research should explore how these tensions shape motivational processes over time. Furthermore, this study did not include strong negative cases or systematically examine structural barriers, which limits the ability to capture the full spectrum of experiences. Addressing these aspects in future studies could provide a more critical and comprehensive understanding of the school–motivation dynamic.

Beyond individual experiences, the school’s strong research-oriented culture—while largely supportive—may embed implicit norms that risk constraining autonomy. For example, the pervasive expectation that teachers engage in research could, over time, shift from an opportunity to an obligation, reducing the voluntary nature of professional development. This dynamic reflects what Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) describe as “performative professionalism,” where teachers feel compelled to align with institutional agendas to maintain credibility. Similarly, structured PD programs, despite their benefits, may inadvertently limit teachers’ agency when participation becomes mandatory or when teachers have little influence over content design. These insights indicate that even in highly supportive environments, cultural affordances and constraints coexist, and their interaction warrants closer examination.