Education is Growth: Exploring the Effectiveness and Practicality of Pre-Service Music Teacher Education in Northern China Through Dewey’s Lens

Abstract

This study explores the effectiveness and practicality of pre-service music teacher education in northern China through the lens of Dewey’s pragmatic educational theory, which emphasizes that education is life, growth, and transformation through experience. Dewey emphasized the importance of reflecting on educational experiences for teacher preparation. In this qualitative study, 15 in-service music teachers from elementary and secondary schools were interviewed about the value of their learning and teaching experiences. Findings reveal that teaching practice and subject content knowledge are perceived as the most valuable and effective components of music teacher education. However, the lack of structured practice mentoring and the limited practical relevance of teacher education courses emerged as significant challenges, hindering the development of teaching skills and professional confidence. The study highlights the importance of clear educational goals and teaching reflective ability in enhancing programs effectiveness. Drawing on Dewey’s “Education as growth” theory, the study argues that meaningful learning occurs through the interaction of action and reflection, and that structured teaching experiences are essential for professional development. The results suggest that improving the quality of mentor support, increasing the practical relevance of teacher education courses, and fostering reflective and goal-oriented teaching strategies can significantly enhance the effectiveness of pre-service music teacher education. The study underscores the importance of contextualized practice and experiential continuity in supporting the professional development of future music educators and enhancing the sustainability of music education in society.

Plain Language Summary

Study Using Interviews with Primary and Secondary School Music Teachers to Reflect on the Effectiveness and Practicality of Pre-Service Music Teacher Education to Better Prepare Future Music Teachers

This study looks at how well current pre-service music teacher education programs prepare future music teachers for real classroom situations. We interviewed 15 experienced music teachers working in primary and secondary schools to understand what works well and what needs improvement in teacher training programs. These teachers shared their views based on their daily teaching experiences, learning experiences and what they believe new music teachers should know before entering the classroom. Our findings suggest that while current programs offer valuable knowledge, they often lack practical training that connects theory with real classroom teaching. Many teachers felt that teacher candidates are not fully ready to handle the challenges of today’s classrooms. They also mentioned the importance of helping future teachers learn to reflect on their teaching and develop clear teaching purpose. The study is based on John Dewey's idea that education is growth. We believe that teacher preparation should help future teachers continue growing throughout their careers. Practical experiences, opportunities to reflect, and training that connects to real classroom needs are all key to effective pre-service music teacher education. These insights can help universities and educators design better teacher education programs and promote the sustainable development of music education.

Keywords

pre-service music teacher education Dewey’s theory in-service music teachers effectiveness practicality

Introduction

In recent decades, the training of pre-service teachers has faced increasing scrutiny, especially focusing on the disconnect between formal training and real-world teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2017). In the field of music education, this tension is further complicated by the highly embodies, context-dependent nature of musical teaching (Jia & Liu, 2022). While institutional frameworks often emphasize competency-based models and standardized curricular outcomes, the lived experiences of in-service music teachers (IMTs) suggest that such models may fall short of preparing novices for the relational and reflective dimensions of classroom teaching. This study explores the effectiveness of pre-service music teacher education (PMTE) in northern China through the reflective accounts of experienced IMTs. It critically reconsiders the concept of “effectiveness” not merely in instrumental terms, but through the lens of Dewey’s theory of education as growth, a process of continual reconstruction grounded in lived experience. Focusing on the perspective of practicing educators, this study argues for a reimagined model of teacher preparation that prioritizes continuity, experiential learning, and reflective growth.

The pre-service stage is the initial step in teacher’s professional development cycle, involving the cultivation of knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary for school teaching, typically provided through university-based teacher education programs (Fessler, 1985; Fessler & Christensen, 1992). Pre-service teacher education is crucial for preparing competent teachers (Bashiruddin, 2018; Darling-Hammond, 2017), and its quality directly impacts teaching quality in schools (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Elliott & Silverman, 2019; Feiman-Nemser, 2012). In China, PMTE refers to students enrolled in music teacher education in normal universities and colleges. It is fundamental for ensuring that pre-service music teachers (PMTs) are well prepared for classroom instruction.

With the implementation of new national curriculum standards, expectations for music teachers are becoming more demanding. However, China is undergoing a period of social transition and facing emerging contradictions and challenges. There is a lack of synergy among the educational forces of society, family and school (Wang & Wang, 2020). Chinese educators have identified several issues in current teaching and teacher preparation, a lack of psychological resilience among teachers, and a deficiency in classroom management and professional conduct (Xue, 2020; Yu & Leung, 2019; Zhong, 2015). Moreover, curriculum reform in music education at normal universities has lagged far behind school music education reform (Chen, 2019; Jia & Liu, 2022). Universities, by their nature and often in response to specific mandates, focus on academic research while neglecting teaching and practice (Feiman-Nemser, 2001), which also applies to music education. Conway (2012) states that teacher educators rarely interact with music teachers, and PMTs often lack awareness of professional development as music teachers.

Therefore, improving the quality of PMTE in China has become a pressing priority. As Reimer (2019) noted, music educators need to explore these and many issues to better understand their subject and teach it effectively, which requires a guiding philosophy to address these challenges and inform practical action. Integrating Dewey’s theory of experience into PMTE programs may foster reflective practices, enhance teaching effectiveness, and help future music educators better navigate classroom complexities. This study aims to explore the effectiveness and practicality of the current PMTE programs in northern China in actual classroom settings, drawing on Dewey’s “education as growth” theory through interviews with IMTs.

Literature Review

The preparation and quality of PMTE influence PMTs’ career retention decisions (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004; Qin & Tao, 2021; Williams & Teakarnrung, 2016). When PMTE programs fail to effectively support music teachers’ instruction in real-world classrooms, they may experience praxis shock and professional burnout(Ballantyne, 2007b; Korthagen, 2010; Legette, 2013; Voss & Kunter, 2020). Exploring how to better prepare PMTs during the teacher education stage is one way to mitigate praxis shock and burnout amongst IMTs (Ballantyne, 2007a; Conway, 2012; Meng & Goopy, 2023). Legette and McCord (2014) indicate that effective PMTE can equip teachers with professional knowledge and skills, thereby shortening the transition from novice to professional. If teacher candidates do not intend to pursue a career in music education, the future supply of music teachers will decline. Therefore, there is a need to explore which programs are practical and effective for PMTs preparation.

Both novice and experienced music teachers emphasize the importance of pedagogical content knowledge, subject-matter knowledge and skills, an integrated curriculum and a contextualized practicum in PMTE (Ballantyne, 2006; Ballantyne & Canham, 2023; Conway, 2020; Groulx 2016; Hourigan & Scheib, 2009; Legette & McCord, 2014). Music education methods courses, field experiences, musicianship, and teaching skills are the most valuable components for strengthening professional pedagogical skills, confidence, and teaching preparation (Baughman, 2020; Brophy, 2002; Conway, 2002, 2022; Hourigan & Scheib, 2009; Juchniewicz, 2010; Legette, 2013; Parker et al., 2017; Powell & Parker, 2017). The least valuable components include methods courses and general education courses, context-free observations and instrument methods courses (Brophy, 2002; Conway, 2002, 2012, 2022; Wacker, 2020).

Moreover, studies have consistently shown that personal teaching skills and interpersonal traits are more valued than musical skills (Ballantyne & Canham, 2023; Fredrickson & Hackworth, 2005; Miksza et al., 2010; Teachout, 1997). These findings reflect Dewey’s (1938) view that meaningful learning arises from experience and interaction with authentic contexts, rather than from passive knowledge transmission. As Schmidt (2010) notes, fieldwork helps PMTs connect personal and professional experiences, aligning with Dewey’s vision of education as growth through reflective experience. The disconnects between university training and professional practice undermines music teachers’ confidence (Ballantyne & Canham, 2023), further reinforcing Dewey’s claim that learning must be continuous with lived experience. Therefore, universities have a responsibility to sufficiently prepare PMTs for their future careers through experiential learning environment.

In China, Zhang and Luo (2022) found that pedagogic knowledge, music performance skills, instructional design, teaching approaches, and curriculum implementation were the most effective aspects of teacher education, while areas such as manage educational budgeting, composition skills, and knowledge of educational law were considered less relevant. Additionally, the ability to communicate with colleagues and organize extracurricular musical activities is regarded as important but receives insufficient attention. Similarly, Meng and Goopy (2023) reported that early-career music teachers considered teaching methods, music performance skills (vocal, piano, conducting) and teaching skills were the most valuable components of PMTE. This misalignment between what is taught in universities and the practical needs of school music teaching resonates with Dewey’s (1916, 1938) critique of formal education that is disconnected from real-life experience. Dewey (1938) emphasized that education should be rooted in the problems, contexts and interactions of daily life, a principle often overlooked in China’s theory-heavy PMTE programs. As Schmidt and Allsup (2019) stated that applying Dewey’s philosophy to PMTE encourages the design of more dynamic, experience-based curricula that bridge the gap between university training and actual teaching demands. While existing research has examined aspects of PMTE effectiveness and identified certain mismatches between training and practice, few studies have specifically explored how IMTs perceived effectiveness and practicality of these programs in real classroom context in China.

Theoretical Framework

This study is underpinned by John Dewey’s theory of education as growth (Dewey, 1916), which emphasizes the importance of learning through the continuity of experience and reflection. Dewey (1938) argues that education is not merely the transmission of knowledge but a continuous process of personal and professional development through active engagement and practical experience. In the context of PMTE, Dewey’s experience theory reflects the process of teacher growth and highlights the importance of reflective practice in fostering professional competence and adaptability. This theoretical framework provides a foundation for understanding the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE in real classroom.

Education as Growth

The concept of education as growth was proposed by Dewey (1916) in Democracy and Education. According to Dewey, growth is the ability to develop, and since growth is the defining characteristic of life, education itself is a process of continuous growth. Dewey (1916) concluded that:

Life is development, and that developing, growing, is life. Translated into its educational equivalents, that means (1) that the educational process has no end beyond itself; it is its own end; and that (2) the educational process is one of continual reorganizing, reconstructing, transforming (p. 54).

Dewey (1916) emphasized that the purpose of school education is to “insure the continuance of education by organizing the powers that insure growth” (p. 56). This growth process is closely tied to the formation of experience, where learners continually reorganize and transform knowledge through interaction with the environment.

In the context of PMTE, teachers are responsibility for fostering environment that support the continuity of learning experiences. Reflective engagement with past and current educational experiences enables teachers to critically examine the validity of beliefs formed through those experiences (Schmidt & Allsup, 2019). This reflective process mirrors how IMTs pass on their expertise to the next generation, not through direct instruction, but through communication within a professional community. Such community embodies shared goals, beliefs, expectations and knowledge among students, teachers and educators. Under the guidance and reflection of experienced teachers, PMTs are able to understand effective classroom instruction and appropriately apply it in practice (Schmidt, 2010, 2013). This highlights the importance of experiential knowledge. As Regelski (2022) stated that understanding and internalizing past praxis is crucial to fully understanding and mastering specific practices. This kind of reflective communication fosters shared experience and contributes to the professional growth of PMTs. Therefore, this study adopts Dewey’s concept of “education as growth” as the theoretical foundation. It explores how Chinese PMTE programs can support PMTs’ professional development through continuous learning and interaction with experienced teachers.

Criteria of Experience

In order to distinguish between valuable and worthless experiences in the growth process. Dewey (1938) proposed two key criteria for evaluating the quality of experience: continuity and interaction. Continuity refers to the capacity to “discriminate between experiences which are educative and those which are mis-educative” (p. 37). Educators should be able to assess which experiences promote continued growth and which are obstacles to continued growth. Interaction determines how an experience functions educationally by connecting the learner’s internal conditions with external environmental conditions (Dewey, 1938). Continuity and interaction are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Continuity reflects vertical growth, where previous experiences shape future ones, while interaction represents horizontal development, where learners with their environment and adapt accordingly. As Dewey (1938) stated, the positive integration of continuity and interaction provides the measure of the educational significance of an experience. In other words, experiences that are meaningfully connected over time contribute to the formation of a coherent and evolving sense of self. Continuity involves “something is carried over from the earlier to the later ones” (p. 44). The knowledge and skills learned by students in previous situation become tools for understanding and handling future situations, and this process will continue to move forward as life and learning continue.

Thus, education as growth requires continuous reflection on past and present experiences, creating a foundation for future growth through meaningful interaction and continuity. For PMTs, this means that their learning should not only involve the acquisition of musical and pedagogical skills but also opportunities for reflective practice and form individual intellectual thinking. Reflective thinking enables PMTs to critically examine their experience and teaching approaches, fostering deeper understanding and adaptive expertise (Schön, 1987; Schmidt & Allsup, 2019). Moreover, Dewey’s concept of continuity emphasizes that learning is cumulative and interconnected, supporting the gradual formation of professional identity through ongoing experiences (Allsup, 2016). Interaction emphasizes the importance of dynamic engagement between PMTs and their environment, including interaction with IMTs, which promote contextualized learning and practical problem-solving skills (Powell & Parker, 2017; Stark, 2020). Dewey (1904) further asserted that teacher candidate should strive for “mastery of subject-matter from the standpoint of its educational value and use” (p. 11). The rich experiences of IMTs can reveal how well current PMTE programs foster meaningful growth and professional competence among future music teachers.

In summary, to ensure the theoretical framework is embedded in the research process. This study operationalizes Dewey’s concepts into three criteria for analyzing PMTE effectiveness and practicality: 1. Continuous learning and reflective experience (growth); 2. Transferability of experience across time and context (continuity); 3. Active engagement with educational practice and mentorship (interaction). These concepts informed the design of interview questions and data analysis process. Furthermore, it is served as interpretive lenses to identify effective and ineffective component of PMTE. The Table 1 below illustrates the process of operationalization.

Table 1.

Dewey’s Theoretical Concepts in this Study.

Theoretical concept	Definition in educational context	Operationalization in this study	Connection to research questions and findings
Growth	Continuous learning and reflective experience	Evaluating whether PMTE help or hinder PMTs professional development	Identifying which components of PMTE promote or hinder meaningful learning and professional development
Continuity	Transferability of experiences across time and context	Assessing whether knowledge from PMTE was linked to actual classroom teaching and shaped PMTs teaching readiness	Explored which PMTE parts were educative or mis-educative
Interaction	Active engagement with educational practice and mentorship	Investigating how participants interaction with mentors, students and peers	Highlighted the importance of mentor support and contextualized practice in shaping effective learning experiences

Research Question

Which component of PMTE programs are perceived as most and least effective and practical when applied in actual classroom teaching?

What improvements can be made to enhance the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE programs?

Method

The semi-structured interview method was employed to explore the perceptions of 15 IMTs on the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE. Interview are a common data collection method involving direct questioning of participants (Johnson & Christensen, 2016). Creswell and Poth (2016) suggest that a sample size of 5 to 25 participants is adequate for capturing the depth of experiences in phenomenological research. This study adopted semi-structured interviews combine closed and open-ended questions, allowing flexibility to probe deeper into participants’ responses (Adams, 2015). This method enables focused dialogue while exploring unexpected issues and capturing non-verbal responses (Kumar, 2011). This study received ethical approval from the university’s ethics committee. Participation was voluntary, anonymity and confidentiality were maintained throughout the study. Participants were assured of their right to withdraw at any point without consequence.

Participants

The present study employed purposive sampling to select participants, aiming to ensure that the sample accurately reflected the characteristics relevant to the research questions. A total of 15 IMTs from 12 elementary and secondary schools in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region of northern China were selected, each with over 5 years of teaching experience. The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region was chosen due to it’s the central city of northern China, with educational cooperated development, resource sharing, and policy support. Among the participants, seven taught both elementary and secondary music classes, and eight were elementary music teachers. Regarding teaching experience, 3 participants had about 5 years, 8 had 6 to 10 years and 4 had over 11 years of experience. Participants were recruited through personal contacts and informed about the study via Wechat. Participants were informed that their responses would remain anonymous. To facilitate data analysis, each participant was assigned a coded based on the interview order (e.g., Participate 1 = P1). To further contextualize the sample and align with ethical anonymity requirements, Table 2 present the participants’ demographics, including, age range, teaching experience, school level, and educational background.

Table 2.

Summary of Participant Demographics (N = 15).

Characteristic	Category	Number of participants
Age range	30–40 years old	13
Age range	Over 50 years old	2
Teaching experience	5 years	3
	6–10 years	8
	Over 11 years	4
School level	Elementary school only	8
School level	Both elementary and secondary school levels	7
Educational level	Bachelor’s degree	12
Educational level	Master’s degree	3

Data Collection Procedure

Interviews were conducted online or face-to-face based on participants’ preferences. Interviews were held in familiar settings to ensure a comfortable and natural interaction (Morris, 2015; Oltmann, 2016). Ten IMTs opted for online interviews, while five preferred face-to-face interviews conducted in their school offices. Since China is not an English-speaking country, language comprehension issues were carefully considered. All interview questions were presented in Chinese, and the researcher meticulously translated participants’ responses into English to ensure accuracy. The interviews followed a question-and-answer format between the interviewer and the interviewee, capturing the depth of participants’ learning, and teaching experience for detailed research and analysis. Each interview lasted approximately 60 min. The interview was developed based on the research questions and theoretical framework. The main guiding questions included but are not limited to: (1) What are the most and least valuable parts of teacher preparation? (2) How did your teaching practice experiences influences your readiness to teach? (3) What improvements would you suggest for PMTE?

Data Analysis Procedure

The interview process followed Seidman’s (2013) three-step interview process: (1) Life history; (2) Details of experience; and (3) Reflections on the meaning (pp. 20–23). The semi-structured interviews began with general background questions (e.g., educational background and years of music teaching) before moving on to questions about their learning and teaching experiences. The aim was to explore participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE in actual classroom teaching.

The interviews were audio-recorded with the interviewees’ consent and transcribed verbatim. The researcher carefully listened to the recordings multiple times to ensure accuracy. The transcripts were analyzed using NVivo 12 coding software to identify insights into participants’ perceptions of effectiveness of PMTE in classroom teaching. Final transcripts were emailed to participants to confirm accuracy. In some cases, participants provided additional explanations or clarifications for ambiguous responses.

Thematic analysis was employed following Braun and Clarke (2006) six-step framework: (1) data familiarization; (2) creating initial codes; (3) theme development; (4) reviewing themes; (5) theme definition; and (6) present the analysis report. The researcher followed this flexible process iteratively, coding and analysing the transcript in NVivo12. It is important to interpret data in different ways to increase the credibility of research findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This study adopted strategies through member checking and investigator triangulation (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Member checking involved inviting participants to review and verify the accuracy of their response and interpretations. Investigator triangulation involved discussions with two academic advisors, providing multiple perspectives and helped refine the interpretation of the data.

The coding process was guided by research questions, and responses were coded according to common themes. All interview transcripts from IMTs were analyzed thematically. Codes for the most effective and practical pre-service experiences that emerged through this interpretation process included the following categories: teaching practice, subject content knowledge, and skills. Codes for identifying the least effective and practical pre-service experiences included lack of mentors’ guidance during practice and limitations in teacher education courses. Codes representing ways to improve effectiveness included developing a clear purpose in music teaching and enhancing the ability of teaching reflection.

Results and Discussion

Most Effective and Practical Aspects of PMTE

Teaching Practice

The 15 interviewees believed that the most effective and practical aspect of the PMTE was the teaching practice. Their responses highlighted the importance of practical experience in building confidence and professional competence. For instance, P1 stated, “I think practice is very important. I had a teaching foundation and had more confident about become a music teacher through this experience.” Similarly, P2 remarked, “Practice is very important because it allows students to be exposed to different classrooms.” P2 further noted that students can gain valuable experience by working in diverse environment and with different groups of students. P5 also expressed that participating in teaching practice contributed to the professional growth and teaching ability of student teachers. P7 said, “During practice, I can teach students music, and I also need to communicate and cooperate with students, parents, and colleagues.” P14 further emphasis the value of practicum experience, stating, “The practicum is a good opportunity to learn more about music education in elementary and secondary schools. It was very helpful for my job interviews.”

Subject Content Knowledge and Skills

Participants identified subject content knowledge and skills as the most effective and practical components of PMTE. Participants agreed that music courses, especially vocal, choral conducting, dance, and improvizational accompaniment were highly beneficial for their teaching. P1 emphasized that the musical knowledge gained at university significantly enhanced their teaching skills. P1said: “I think the university music courses are comprehensive, and piano skills, vocal and choral conducting in particular were very useful.” P3 similarly mentioned: “Music skills are more useful for me to teach students to sing or accompany them on the piano.” P15 believes that professional knowledge and skills form the core of PMTE. This perspective explained that musical knowledge supports both teaching content and knowledge delivery: “Without a thorough understanding of professional knowledge, it is easy to mislead students. Music teachers lacking professional knowledge and skills may fail to grasp the essence of the music subject.” Moreover, participants believed that dance is helpful in teaching student rhythm, school performance activities and dance appreciation class. P12 stated that “Elementary school has rhythmic movement classes and ballet appreciation classes. My major is dance, so I’m very good at teaching these.” This participate emphasizes incorporating dance movements into the teaching process, allowing students to learn rhythm and feel the melody. P5 said: “We need to master musical skills, including dance, to teach pupils. Such as when rehearsing program, dance is the most common.” This underscores that professional musical knowledge and skills are essential for music teachers’ effectiveness and professional development. Without a solid foundation in these areas, teachers may struggle to deliver high-quality instruction and foster student understanding.

Discussion

The findings highlight that teaching practice and subject content knowledge and skills are the most valuable components of PMTE. Teaching practice effectively enhances problem-solving skills and classroom confidence, consistent with previous research on the value of field experience and student teaching (Baughman, 2020; Meng & Goopy, 2023; Parker et al., 2017). As Dewey (1916) noted that meaningful experience involves both action and reflection on the consequences. Effective teaching practice goes beyond simple observation, enabling PMTs to gain insights that can be linked to future learning and teaching. This aligns with previous research that identified personal teaching skills, interpersonal relationships and professional socialization is important in PMTE (Ballantyne & Canham, 2023; Fredrickson & Hackworth, 2005; Teachout, 1997).

Similarly, subject content knowledge was viewed as crucial for classroom competence, providing musical knowledge and technical competence for teaching. Consistent with previous research (Ballantyne, 2006, 2007a; Ballantyne & Canham, 2023; Conway, 2012, 2022; Meng & Goopy, 2023; Zhang & Luo, 2022), participants valued training in core areas such as vocal, piano, and conducting. An unexpected finding was the importance of dance in enhancing student engagement and teacher-student interaction. Suggesting that integrating body movement into music instruction could improve students’ understanding of rhythm, melody, and musical expression. This is also highlights PMTE need to provide interdisciplinary teaching strategies for PMTs that reflect the multi-faced demands of real school settings. This aligns with Dewey’s emphasis on learning through action and interaction. However, they noted that gaps in specific areas (e.g., voice, instruments) undermined their confidence during teaching demonstrations. This contrasts with previous research suggesting that pedagogical and interpersonal skills are more important than musical skills (Frierson-Campbell, 2007; Teachout, 1997), possibly due to differences in educational backgrounds. Reimaging PMTE with Dewey’s concept of education as growth suggest that preparing PMTs requires not only technical skills but also development of diversity experiences and adaptive expertise to meet actual classroom challenges.

Least Effective and Practical Aspects of PMTE

Lack of Mentors’ Guidance During Practice

Participates believed that practice mentors are important for teaching practice. P3 said: “I did my practicum in a remote school with no professional music teacher to guide me.” P3 complained that practicum experience was ineffective because the university failed to arrange proper mentorship. Similarly, P6 emphasized: “Student teachers are wasting their time without teacher guidance during practicum.” P11 added: “They did not really learn anything from teaching practice, which just give students an opportunity to choose a career in advance.” Participants generally believed that the presence of mentor teachers is the key factor in determining whether a teaching practicum is effective. Without proper guidance, the practicum could become meaningless. As P2 noted, “When I started my practicum, whether I had a teacher to guide me made all the difference. Without guidance, you feel completely lost.” This suggests that regular and targeted guidance from experienced teachers can help PMTs improve steadily and develop a basic understanding of classroom teaching models.

Teacher Education Courses

Participates stated that they were insufficiently prepared by teacher education courses, P14 said: “University focuses more on professional skills and neglects teaching knowledge and skills.” Similarly, P1 felt that pedagogical knowledge was too theoretical to apply it in teaching. Especially, P3 stated: “University offers teacher education courses, but not connected to practice. I didn’t know how to use them and forgot most of it. I’m re-learning pedagogy and psychology after work.” Other participants had the same sentiment that the teacher education courses in universities was too theoretical, and PMTs were not aware of the role played by these theories. P13 said: “Beginning teachers and student teachers didn’t study pedagogy well at university. They only learned theory without realizing how useful it could be for future teaching.” With the teaching experience increasingly rich, participants recognized that both music courses and teacher education courses are equality important for classroom teaching. P15 said: “If you don’t understand or continue to study pedagogy, you can’t solve the difficulties and problems with teaching.” Thus, participates emphasis that the quality of teacher education courses will be influence the quality of classroom teaching.

Discussion

The findings indicate that the least effective and practical aspects of PMTE are the lack of mentor’s guidance during practice and the limited practical value of teacher education courses. The absence of structured mentorship during practice limits the development of teaching skills, as student teachers often struggle to bridge the gap between theory and practice without experienced mentors (Darling-Hammond, 2006a; Feiman-Nemser, 1996; Matsko et al., 2020; Schön, 1987). This study highlights that the absence of music-specific mentors further widens the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in music education. Moreover, the limited practical relevance of teacher education courses reflects a disconnect between university instruction and classroom realities. IMTs reported that overly theoretical content is difficult to apply in practice (Conway, 2002, 2012; Haning, 2021; Meng & Goopy, 2023). This finding is consistent with earlier research suggesting that university courses often emphasize theory over practice, leaving student teachers underprepared for real-world teaching challenges (Buckley & Husband, 2020; Smith & Hodson, 2010). This study further found that PMTs face challenges in applying educational psychology and music pedagogy in classroom settings. They need to translate psychological principles into pedagogical practices appropriate for the music discipline and maintain effectiveness in multimodal teaching environments.

From Deweyan perspective, these issues reflect a lack of continuity between teaching and learning. Any experience without educational significance hinders the accumulation of future experience. Dewey (1938) argue that meaningful learning arises from experiential process where knowledge is actively constructed through doing. Dewey’s framework provides a pragmatic approach for PMTE to prioritized guided experience, contextualized learning and active inquiry form the core of professional development. University should strengthen the alignment between theory and practice, improve the quality of mentor support, and ensuring that teacher education courses address the realities of music classrooms (Buckley & Husband, 2020; Smith & Hodson, 2010; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).

Enhancing Program Effectiveness and Practicality Through Purpose of Music Teaching and Teaching Reflection

Purpose of Music Teaching

Participants’ teaching goals in music education have evolved with experience, shifting from technical mastery to deeper emotional and cognitive development. P13 explained: “My previous goal was to teach music theory and basic skills. But now I focus more on students’ emotional and spiritual growth. I think my purpose have changed as my mindset evolved.” With more teaching experience, P13 began to focus more on students' inner growth. Likewise, P10 said: “In university, my goal was to become an excellent teacher and succeed in music. Now, I hope my students can develop a love for life through music classes.” At the same time, participants emphasized meeting curriculum standards as their primary teaching purpose. P3 stated: “In university, I didn’t have any teaching goals because I wasn’t sure if I would become a teacher. Now my teaching goal is to meet curriculum expectations.” In contrast, P4 expressed: “I hope my students can improve their musical taste rather than just listening to popular music.” This perspective shows that some teachers aim to cultivate students’ critical listening and appreciation skills beyond standardized curricula. P15 highlighted the importance of creative thinking in music education: “Teaching students to sing is not enough. The goal should be to guide students in developing thinking and creative abilities.” P15 emphasized that music can stimulate students' imagination, and situational teaching has been effective in helping students understand musical meaning and emotional depth. Similarly, P11 emphasized that effective teaching outcomes depend on having clear goals and standards: “When university students have clear goals for their future, it helps them prepare better for teaching.” The shift from focusing solely on curriculum to cultivating deeper emotional and cognitive skills highlights the evolving nature of music teachers’ goals and purpose as they gain experience.

Teaching Reflection

Participants emphasized that teaching reflection is both a critical skill and an effective tool for improving music teaching. Teaching reflection involves gathering student feedback, assessing teaching performance, and analyzing this information to explore and identify one’s practices and self-awareness, thereby improving and adjusting teaching methods. P13 noted that self-awareness of teaching shortcomings is essential for progress: “There is no such thing as a perfect class; you just try to improve based on experience.” Similarly, P5 highlighted the need for teachers to stay updated with new music teaching methods to keep pace with societal changes: “I don’t want to be left behind by society.” P14 viewed reflection as an opportunity to integrate values and enhance teaching quality: “Reflecting after each lesson helps avoid wasting time on unnecessary content.” P3 emphasized: “At first, I focused on my own teaching methods. Now I pay more attention to student feedback.” P6 explained that divides reflection into three phases: before, during, and after the lesson, focusing on both successes and challenges. P7, with 32 years of teaching experience, stressed the importance of collective reflection, encouraging student teachers to document their teaching process for continuous improvement. Similarly, P15 advocated for collective reflection, stating that sharing insights and strategies with other teachers enhances overall teaching effectiveness: “Collaborative reflection helps create synergy and improves teaching quality across the group.” Overall, reflective teaching plays a crucial role in enhancing music teaching and professional growth.

Discussion

This study highlights that clear teaching purpose and goals and reflective thinking has been shown to enhance the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE. IMTs reported that having explicit goals, such as improving students’ aesthetic appreciation and meeting curriculum standards, helped them focus on essential teaching skills and strategies. This finding aligns with research showing that learning goals drive motivation and improve learning outcomes (Camp, 2017; Hein et al., 2019; Locke & Latham, 2013). This study further suggests that reflective thinking can deepen the purpose of music teaching. Teaching is not only achieving the goals of acquiring music skills, but also to pursuit the purpose of musical function to enhance students’ love of life, creativity, and perception. Dewey (1916) emphasized that true purpose is not the destination but the compass that gives meaning to action, requiring constant reflection and reconstruction in practice. The intrinsic purpose of education is the continuous development of capabilities, not external results.

Purposeful learning and reflective thinking skills frames teacher preparation as a continuous growth process. IMTs calls for greater emphasis on reflective teaching resonated with Dewey’s (1916) view that reflective thinking promotes evidence-based decision-making and accountability for teaching outcomes. Moreover, this align with experiential learning theory (Kolb, 2014) and notion that reflective thinking enhances teaching practicality, evaluate teaching strategies and supports professional development (Killian et al., 2023; Johnson et al., 2018; Schön, 1987; Zeichner & Liston, 1987). Therefore, this study suggests integrating Dewey’s concepts into curriculum design to improve the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE through structured goal-oriented and reflective thinking exercises.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study identifies teaching practice and subject content knowledge and skills are the most effective and practical components in real-world classroom settings. Conversely, the lack of mentor support during teaching practice and the limited practical relevance of teacher education courses were identified as the least effective and practical aspects of PMTE. Clear purpose of teaching and teaching reflective ability play a crucial role in improving the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE. Grounded in Dewey’ theory of growth, the findings reveal that PMTE program lack contextualized instructional guidance and experiential continuity. This limits PMTs ability to apply theory to practice and hinders their professional development. It is indicated that meaningful professional development occurs when experiences are both continuous and reflective.

Notably, direct teaching experience can provide greater benefit for PMTs, which foster professional identity, confidence and improved learning strategies. As Dewey (1916) emphasized that valuable experiences include both the direct outcomes of action and subsequent reflective adjustments. Such experiences promote the development of adaptive expertise through reflection. Moreover, clear educational goals, and purposes—such as improving students’ aesthetic sensitivity and fostering a love for music—provides direction and motivation for effective teaching (Hein et al., 2019). Thus, effective PMTE should not only equip PMTs with pedagogical content knowledge but also offer purposeful reflection, contextualized mentorship and experiential learning. Viewing PMTE as a process of growth therefore reframes it as an evolving trajectory rather than a fixed training model. This will help future music educators to navigate the complexities of classroom teaching and achieve meaningful educational outcomes. This experience promotes a more effective and growth-oriented PMTE system.

Implication and Limitation

The findings of this study have important implications for improving the effectiveness and practicality of PMTE. First, the study underscores the critical role of teaching practice in developing teaching skills, confidence, and professional identity among PMTs. This suggests that teacher education programs should place greater emphasis on increasing the amount and quality of teaching practice. Establishing structured and consistent mentor support is essential to help PMTs bridge the gap between theory and practice, as experienced mentors can provide targeted feedback and professional guidance. Second, the study highlights the value of clear educational goals and reflective ability in improving teaching effectiveness. Teacher education programs should encourage PMTs to set specific learning objectives and cultivate their reflective thinking. This approach can enhance their ability to adapt to classroom complexities and foster professional growth. Third, the study suggests that teacher education programs should strengthen the connection between theoretical knowledge and practical application. Curricula should be designed to reflect the real-world challenges of music teaching, ensuring that PMTs can apply educational theories and pedagogical methods effectively in their future teaching. Encouraging experiential learning and reflection aligns with Dewey's theory of learning through experience and supports learning to teaching continuity (Feiman-Nemser, 2012).

However, the sample size was relatively small and limited to a specific group of IMTs in China. This may limit the generalizability of findings to other contexts or educational systems. Future research could expand the sample size and research population to investigate how the skills and knowledge acquired during PMTE translate into long-term teaching performance and professional growth. Recommendations made in the study may not be universally applicable to all music education programs, especially in differing culture or institutional contexts. To broaden the understanding of PMTE, future research could compare teacher education programs across different cultural and institutional contexts. Investigating how different educational traditions and policies influence the effectiveness of PMTE could provide valuable insights for improving global practices.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I sincerely appreciate the participants for generously sharing their experiences and insights, which were invaluable to this study.

ORCID iDs

Lin Fang

Ku Wing Cheong

Chiew Hwa Poon

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Due to ethical considerations and confidentiality agreements, interview transcripts cannot be made publicly available.

References

Adams

W. C.

(2015). Conducting semi-structured interviews. In Newcomer

K. E.

Hatry

H. P.

Wholey

J. S.

(Eds.), Handbook of practical program evaluation, fourth edition (pp. 492–505). John Wiley & Pfeiffer Imprints.

Allsup

R. E.

(2016). Remixing the classroom: Toward an open philosophy of music education. Indiana University Press.

Ballantyne

(2006). Reconceptualising preservice teacher education courses for music teachers: The importance of pedagogical content knowledge and skills and professional knowledge and skills. Research Studies in Music Education, 26(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X060260010101

Ballantyne

(2007a). Integration, contextualization and continuity: Three themes for the development of effective music teacher education programmes. International Journal of Music Education, 25(2), 119–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761407079955

Ballantyne

(2007b). Documenting praxis shock in early-career Australian music teachers: The impact of pre-service teacher education. International Journal of Music Education, 25(3), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761407083573

Ballantyne

Canham

(2023). Understanding music teachers’ perceptions of themselves and their work: An importance–confidence analysis. International Journal of Music Education, 41(3), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1177/02557614221124966

Ballantyne

Packer

(2004). Effectiveness of preservice music teacher education program: Perception of early-career music teachers. Music Education Research, 6(3), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461380042000281749

Bashiruddin

(Ed.) (2018). Theoretical framework of “becoming” and “being” a teacher. In Teacher development and teacher education in developing countries on becoming and being a teacher (p. 12). Palgrave Macmillan.

Baughman

(2020). Mentorship and learning experiences of preservice teachers as community children’s chorus conductors. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 29(2), 38–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083719876116

10.

Braun

Clarke

(2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

11.

Brophy

T. S.

(2002). Teacher reflections on undergraduate music education. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 12(1), e19–e25. https://doi.org/10.1177/10570837020120010501

12.

Buckley

Husband

(2020). Lecturer identities and perceptions of CPD for supporting learning and teaching in FE and HE in the UK. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 7(4), 432–453.

13.

Camp

(2017). Goal setting as teacher development practice. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 29(1), 61–72.

14.

Chen

P. G.

(2019). Problems, challenges and solutions in the reform of music curriculum in Higher Normal Education in China. China Music Education, (12), 25–30.

15.

Conway

(2002). Perceptions of beginning teachers, their mentors, and administrators regarding preservice music teacher preparation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345690

16.

Conway

C. M.

(2012). Ten years later: Teachers reflect on “perceptions of beginning teachers, their mentors, and administrator regarding preservice music teacher preparation.” Journal of Research in Music Education, 60(3), 324–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429412453601

17.

Conway

(2022). Preservice music teacher education: The view from 20 years later. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 31(3), 10–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/10570837221075676

18.

Conway

C. M.

Hibbard

(2020). Pushing the boundaries from the Inside. In Conway

Pellegrino

Stanley

A. M.

West

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of preservice music teacher education in the United States (pp. 3–22). Oxford University Press.

19.

Creswell

J. W.

Poth

C. N.

(2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

20.

Darling-Hammond

(2000). How teacher education matters. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487100051003002

21.

Darling-Hammond

(2006a). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487105285962

22.

Darling-Hammond

(2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn from international practice? European Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2017.1315399

23.

Dewey

(1916). Democracy and education. Macmillan.

24.

Dewey

(1904). The relation of theory to practice in education. Teachers College Record, 5(6), 9–30.

25.

Dewey

(1938). Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi.

26.

Elliott

D. J.

Silverman

(2019). Change in music teacher education: A philosophical view. In Conway

Pellegrino

Stanley

A. M.

West

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of preservice music teacher education in the United States (pp. 1–19). Oxford University Press.

27.

Feiman-Nemser

(1996). Teacher mentoring: A critical review. ERIC Digest. ED397060.

28.

Feiman-Nemser

(2001). From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching. Teacher College Record, 103(6), 1013–1055. https://doi.org/10.1111/0161-4681.00141

29.

Feiman-Nemser

(2012). Teachers as learners. Harvard Education Press.

30.

Fessler

(1985). A model for teacher professional growth and development. In Burke

P. J.

Heideman

R. G.

(Eds.), Career-long teacher education (pp. 181–193). Corwin.

31.

Fessler

Christensen

(1992). The teacher career cycle: Understanding and guiding the professional development of teachers. Allyn & Bacon.

32.

Fredrickson

W. E.

Hackworth

R. S.

(2005). Analysis of first-year music teachers’ advice to music education students. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 23(2), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/87551233050230020102

33.

Frierson-Campbell

(2007). Connections with the schooling enterprise: Implications for music education policy. Arts Education Policy Review, 108(6), 33–38. https://doi.org/10.3200/AEPR.108.6.33-38

34.

Groulx

T. J.

(2016). Perceptions of course value and issues of specialization in undergraduate music teacher education curricula. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 25(2), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083714564874

35.

Haning

(2021). Identity formation in music teacher education: The role of the curriculum. International Journal of Music Education, 39(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761420952215

36.

Hein

Daumiller

Janke

Dresel

Dickhäuser

(2019). How learning time mediates the impact of university Scholars’ learning goals on professional learning in research and teaching. Learning and Individual Differences, 72, 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.04.002

37.

Hourigan

R. M.

Scheib

J. W.

(2009). Inside and outside the undergraduate music education curriculum student teacher perceptions of the value of skills, abilities, and understandings. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 18(2), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083708327871

38.

Jia

Z. H.

Liu

(2022). Establishing competence-based profile and portfolio assessment for high quality preservice music teacher education. China Music Education, (2), 5–9.

39.

Johnson

Christensen

(2016). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. SAGE Publications.

40.

Johnson

D. C.

Stanley

A. M.

Falter

E. H.

Greene

J. L.

Moore

H. L.

Paprone

S. A.

Snell

A. H.

II (2018). Reflections on music teacher professional development: Teacher-generated policies and practices. Arts Education Policy Review, 120(4), 208–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2018.1468839

41.

Juchniewicz

(2010). The influence of social intelligence on effective music teaching. Journal of Research in Music Education, 58(3), 276–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429410378368

42.

Killian

J. N.

Henninger

J. C.

Williams

B. A.

(2023). It’s about time: An examination of the importance of timing on positivity of preservice music educators’ teaching reflections. International Journal of Music Education, 41(1), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/025576142210905

43.

Kolb

D. A.

(2014, original published in 1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT Press.

44.

Korthagen

F. A.

(2010). How teacher education can make a difference. Journal of Education for Teaching, 36(4), 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2010.513854

45.

Kumar

(2011). Research methodology a step-by-step guide for beginners. SAGE Publications.

46.

Legette

R. M.

(2013). Perceptions of early-career school music teachers regarding their preservice preparation. National Association for Music Education, 32(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123313502342

47.

Legette

R. M.

McCord

D. H.

(2014). Pre-service music teachers perceptions of teaching and teacher Training. Contributions to Music Education, 40, 163–176.

48.

Lincoln

Y. S.

Guba

E. G.

(1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.

49.

Locke

E. A.

Latham

G. P.

(Eds.) (2013). Goal setting theory, 1990. In New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 2–15). Routledge.

50.

Matsko

K. K.

Ronfeldt

Nolan

H. G.

Klugman

Reininger

Brockman

S. L.

(2020). Cooperating teacher as model and coach: What leads to student teachers’ perceptions of preparedness? Journal of Teacher Education, 71(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118791992

51.

Meng

Goopy

(2023). Early-career music teachers’ perspectives of their initial teacher education program in China. Research Studies in Music Education, 46(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X231157190

52.

Merriam

S. B.

Tisdell

E. J.

(2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Wiley.

53.

Miksza

Roeder

Biggs

(2010). Surveying Colorado band directors’ opinions of skills and characteristics important to successful music teaching. Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(4), 364–381. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429409351655

54.

Morris

(2015). A practical introduction to in-depth interviewing. Sage.

55.

Oltmann

S. M.

(2016). Qualitative interviews: A methodological discussion of the interviewer and respondent contexts. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 17(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-17.2.2551

56.

Parker

E. C.

Bond

V. L.

Powell

S. R.

(2017). A grounded theory of preservice music educators’ lesson planning processes within field experience methods courses. Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(3), 287–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429417730035

57.

Powell

S. R.

Parker

E. C.

(2017). Preservice music teachers’ descriptions of successful and unsuccessful teachers. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 26(3), 27–37. https://org.doi/10.1177/1057083716662689

58.

Qin

Tao

(2021). Understanding preservice music teachers’ intention to remain in the profession: An integrated model of the theory of planned behaviour and motivation theory. International Journal of Music Education, 39(4), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761420963149

59.

Regelski

T. A.

(2022). Musical value and praxical music education. Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education, 21(1), 15–55. https://doi.org/10.22176/act21.1.15

60.

Reimer

(2019). A philosophy of music education: Advancing the vision (3rd ed.). Pearson.

61.

Schmidt

Allsup

R. E.

(2019). John Dewey and teacher education. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.475

62.

Schmidt

(2010). Learning from teaching experience: Dewey’s theory and preservice teachers’ learning. Journal of Research in Music Education, 58(2), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429410368723

63.

Schmidt

(2013). Transition from student to teacher: Preservice teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 23(1), 27–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083712469111

64.

Schön

D. A.

(1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass.

65.

Seidman

(2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (4th ed.). Teachers’ College Press.

66.

Smith

Hodson

(2010). Theorising practice in initial teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 36(3), 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2010.497366

67.

Smith

T. M.

Ingersoll

R. M.

(2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41(3), 681–714. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312041003681

68.

Stark

(2020). Dewey's theory of experience: A theoretical tool for researching music teacher learning. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 19(1), 118–152. https://doi.org/10.22176/act19.1.118

69.

Teachout

D. J.

(1997). Preservice and experienced teachers’ opinions of skills and behaviors important to successful music teaching. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345464

70.

Voss

Kunter

(2020). “Reality shock” of beginning teachers? Changes in teacher candidates’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist-oriented beliefs. Journal of Teacher Education, 71(3), 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487119839700

71.

Wacker

A. T.

(2020). Teacher knowledge and lesson preparation in music education: A review of the literature. Visions of Research in Music Education, 35, 1–23.

72.

Wang

Y. Q.

Wang

Y. T.

(2020). Pragmatism and the practicality of aesthetic education: A current reflection of “replacing religion with aesthetic education.” Journal of Hebei Normal University (Educational Science), 22, 34–39.

73.

Williams

Trakanrung

(2016). Thai pre-service music educators and their future in music education and its role in society. International Journal of Music Education, 34(1), 74–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761415584297

74.

Xue

(2020). You Gaoshi Yinyue Jiaoyu Shixi Wenti Yinfa de Sikao [Thoughts triggered by music education internship issues in normal universities]. People's Music, (4), 27–29.

75.

Leung

B.-W.

(2019). Music teachers and their implementation of the new music curriculum standards in China. International Journal of Music Education, 37(2), 178–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761418820647

76.

Zeichner

K. M.

Liston

D. P.

(1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 23–49. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j18v7162275t1w3w

77.

Zhang

Luo

(2022). The preliminary construction of the importance- performance model(I): An investigation into the effectiveness of music teacher education in China. People’s Music, (3), 57–61.

78.

Zhong

(2015, May 29–31). Study on the general music education of normal university [Conference session]. 3rd International conference management, education, information and control, Shenyang, China, pp. 1302–1307.