The Influence of Family and Teacher Support on Academic Self-Efficacy in China: The Mediating Role of Self-Esteem and the Moderating Effect of Personality

Psychosocial and Environmental Influences on Academic Self-Efficacy

Understanding familial support and its influence on adolescents’ academic self-efficacy is crucial to understanding the maturation process. In his pioneering self-efficacy theory, Bandura (1986) explains how social influence, vicarious experiences, physiological conditions, and mastery affect confidence. Parental participation, kindness, and support have a positive impact on teenagers’ academic self-efficacy at home (Grijalva-Quiñonez et al., 2020). Gambin et al. (2021) discovered that adolescents with emotionally supportive parents were more confident in their academic abilities. Research has shown that homework aids and educational resources enhance adolescents’ academic self-efficacy (Rachmawati et al., 2021). Parents’ informational support, such as advice on educational and career routes, also shapes adolescents’ academic self-perceptions (Jackson & Lambert, 2023). These findings show the complexity of parental influence on educational performance and the necessity of family support in adolescent academic self-efficacy. Family and community services affect adolescents’ cognitive health. Adolescents who engage in extracurricular activities, utilise recreational facilities, and seek counselling have reduced stress, anxiety, and sadness (Goodman et al. 2021). Adolescents gain confidence and emotional and cognitive resilience by meeting new people, learning new things, and improving themselves through the community’s educational initiatives (López-Aymes et al., 2020). Recreational facilities offer exercise and friendship-building opportunities, which are essential for adolescents’ mental health (Simpson et al., 2024). Community counselling programmes can offer a safe environment for teens to discuss their thoughts and receive support (Johnson et al., 2023). Personality type may moderate environmental effects on adolescents. Interactionists believe personality traits may affect how individuals respond to environmental stimuli. According to Mohamud and Madderla (2024), youth who score high on the extraversion scale tend to thrive in socially supportive environments, whereas those who score lower may struggle. Similarly, Mammadov and Tozoglu (2023) showed that conscientious adolescents benefited more from structured classrooms and parental interaction than their less conscientious counterparts. Based on the cited literature, the following are the study’s hypotheses.

Theoretical Perspectives Guiding Adolescent Development Research

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999) underpin this research. Theory suggests that beliefs, behaviours, and environments interact to shape growth in a complex manner. This concept suggests that self-confidence influences motivation, behaviour, and outcomes. Self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by mastery, vicarious learning, social pressure, and physiological factors (A. Arslan, 2013). Caprara et al. (1998) emphasise the role of personal attributes, community resources, and familial support in shaping adolescents’ self-image. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory can help explain the complex relationship between individuals and their environment. According to the theory, human development occurs in a nested hierarchy of interrelated systems:

Within the theoretical framework, the influence of family, community, and individual attributes is paramount. These factors operate at the microsystemic level, directly impacting the individual. Conversely, the sociocultural background, a broader contextual factor, influences the exosystem and macrosystem levels, indirectly shaping the individual’s development (Garavan et al. 2023).

Despite studies showing that family support is vital, little is known about its impact on adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Many studies have overlooked the specific effects of instrumental, emotional, and informational parental support in favour of generic measures of parental engagement and support (Martínez-López et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2024). Thus, research is required to distinguish the effects of different forms of support on adolescent academic self-efficacy, thereby understanding better how family influences academic success. Although community resources have been linked to improved mental health outcomes for adolescents, there is a dearth of research on the precise mechanisms by which these resources affect cognitive health. Previous research has focused on community resources and cognitive health outcomes, rather than the processes and routes (Kates et al., 2023; Thimm-Kaiser et al., 2023). To better understand how community resources impact adolescents’ mental health and design more effective therapies, further research is needed to discover mediating pathways.

Recent studies have shown that instructors’ emotional and intellectual support is crucial to students’ performance in many educational settings. H. Liu et al. (2025) examined Chinese students’ reported teacher support, empathy, and English learning ennui, focusing on psychological aspects of teacher-student interactions. When instructors showed empathy, children were less bored and more engaged. According to Ansong et al. (2024), consistent assistance improved performance across all assessment types, particularly for disadvantaged children. The authors also examined teacher support on both low- and high-stakes tests. Jia and Cheng (2024) found that instructors’ social support improved students’ emotional experiences in class, which boosted their engagement with the topic.

This research examines the multifaceted effects of community resources and family support on adolescents’ cognitive health and academic self-efficacy to address these information gaps. The research employs a multidimensional approach to measure family support, encompassing emotional, instrumental, and informational aspects, to investigate how family influences affect teenagers’ academic self-perceptions. The study also aims to investigate how family support and community resources influence adolescent development through self-esteem and personality type. This study aims to advance knowledge of adolescent development and inform interventions to promote cognitive health and academic performance, leveraging a robust theoretical base and scientific rigour. The final hypothesis of the study is as follows:

Research Framework

Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework that links the various components of the study to the dependent variable, academic self-efficacy. This framework places adolescents’ academic self-efficacy, such as their confidence in their ability to succeed, at its core. The independent determinants in this framework, that is, family support, community resources, parent-child relationship, and teacher support, are crucial factors that influence academic self-efficacy. At the microsystemic level, family support and the quality of the parent-child relationship play a significant role in teenagers’ development. At a broader contextual level, community resources and teacher support have a significant influence. In the conceptual framework, personality type and self-esteem are both moderating and mediating factors. Personality moderates academic self-efficacy and independent factors, showing how individuals respond to their circumstances. Self-esteem is linked to independent factors and academic self-efficacy, illustrating how adolescent self-perceptions are shaped by their unique blend of personal, social, and familial experiences.

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Figure 1.

Research model.

The proposed theoretical model (Figure 1) illustrates the various connections between adolescent mental health and academic self-efficacy. According to the concept, family support boosts adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. This help is emotional, instrumental, and informational. Homes that provide loving support, continuous praise, and constructive criticism boost adolescents’ self-esteem and academic motivation. Access to schools, parks, and counselling services should improve adolescent cognitive health. Community programmes enhance adolescent resilience and mental health by providing opportunities for skill development, fostering social connections, and offering emotional support. Parent-child stable relationships and supportive teacher relationships may also boost adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Parents’ and teachers’ supportive and communicative relationships enhance adolescents’ academic confidence, motivation, and engagement. Personality type may modify the associations between independent factors and adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental well-being. Personality qualities, including openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, as well as environmental and familial influences, may influence adolescents’ development. Self-esteem may also modify the associations between independent factors and adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental well-being. Adolescents’ self-esteem, which is influenced by their perceptions of family and community support, may enhance their academic self-efficacy and mental health.

Personality is a moderating factor in the ecological systems paradigm because it shapes people’s interactions and reactions to their environment. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory posits that complex environmental interactions lead to sustained growth. Personality traits, including emotional stability, openness, and conscientiousness, help people understand the world. Outgoing or resilient adolescents may perceive and utilise family and teacher assistance better than introverted or cautious teens. Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises the role of self-beliefs and dispositions in shaping behaviour-environment interactions, thereby supporting this integration. With personality as a moderator, the study examines how individual dispositions might accentuate or reduce support network effects on academic self-efficacy. This approach helps explain adolescent development by acknowledging that different teenagers’ personality configurations may lead to the same external support having different psychological or academic outcomes.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory classifies environmental variables into nested systems, including microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem, to understand the complex effects on adolescent development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This technique is used to examine how Chinese teenagers’ family, schools, and communities affect their academic self-efficacy and psychological health. Our microsystem examination of parent-child interactions, teacher support, and family engagement includes direct encounters with classmates, instructors, and relatives. Mesosystems link microsystems and illustrate the effects of family and school support on adolescent psychological development. The community resources component includes the exosystem, which encompasses community structures and local educational laws. Chinese youth face academic pressure and social expectations within the macro-system of cultural norms, societal values, and national educational objectives. The study perceives the chronosystem as the shifting backdrop of digitalisation and educational reform that increasingly affects Chinese youth, even though the study’s cross-sectional approach does not directly analyse temporal changes.

New ecological theory applications in educational psychology support this multi-level picture. H. Liu et al. (2023) utilise buoyant and online educational contexts to illustrate how ecological layers impact emotional resilience and adaptability. H. Liu et al. (2022) studied Chinese webcast teaching anxiety in an ecological context. Personal traits and organisational norms influence instructors’ real-life experiences, as demonstrated. These studies demonstrate that Bronfenbrenner’s paradigm is applicable in both traditional and modern schooling, thereby supporting the ecological framework. A multi-layered approach may represent the complex and culturally based development of adolescents’ academic self-efficacy.

Research Participants

In this quantitative investigation, data are collected from the population through a systematic survey. This study encompasses adolescents from throughout China, reflecting the country’s cultural and socioeconomic diversity. China, a vast and diverse nation, demonstrates how family dynamics, community involvement, and individual characteristics influence the development of adolescents. The study recruits adolescents nationwide to ensure the findings are relevant to various samples. Family involvement, community resources, teacher support, personality traits, and academic self-efficacy affect adolescents’ cognitive health and academic performance. This study aimed to establish a robust framework for understanding these linkages. A comprehensive literature review revealed a lack of understanding among Chinese youths of the complex interaction between these factors, prompting the research questions. To fill that gap, this study examined the links between these characteristics and academic self-efficacy, self-esteem, and psychological wellness. The study used validated measures to assess academic self-efficacy, family engagement, teacher support, and personality traits.

Data Cleaning and Missing Data Management

The dataset was thoroughly cleansed to enhance its quality and reliability. The first phase was evaluating the replies for thoroughness and coherence. All instances with more than 10% missing data in critical variables were excluded (n = 23). For any missing values that follow, the study employed multiple imputations using the Expectation-Maximisation (EM) technique, which preserves the data distribution and mitigates bias, particularly in social science data. Before imputation, Little’s MCAR test confirmed that the data were completely missing at random. Outliers were identified and managed using conventional z-scores, with values exceeding ±3.0 standard deviations being scrutinised and winsorised as necessary. These measures were used to provide resilience while preserving sample integrity.

The sample consisted of 750 adolescents to ensure sufficient power and accuracy for structural equation modelling (SEM). The study employed Yamane’s (1967) sample size formula, a widely used formula in education and psychology that is suitable for large populations. With a 5% margin of error and a large target population of Chinese secondary school students. The study met SEM criteria for statistical power, reliability, and generalizability, which were linked to model complexity, latent components, and observable variables.

Participants must be between 13 and 18 years old and in high school. Cognitively impaired patients or those who could not provide informed consent or legal guardian approval were excluded. Stratified random selection by province, school type (urban/rural), and educational level ensured that the sample represented China’s cultural, institutional, and geographical diversity. This approach is supported by current studies demonstrating the impact of diverse places in China on teens’ educational and psychological outcomes (X. Chen & Hesketh, 2021; Qu et al., 2024), as well as earlier research on effective practices (T. J. Chen et al., 2024; Xia, 2024). Due to stratification, the study achieved balanced representation, thereby enhancing its external validity.

The survey instrument was based on literature-validated measures to ensure content validity. Online and in-person questionnaires were used to enhance response rates and ensure diversity. Missing variables were imputed numerous times to avoid estimation bias. The Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests confirmed normality, whereas the standardised residual analysis identified outliers. Deviations from normality were handled with proper transformations. The study checked for Common Method Bias using Harman’s single-factor test. No one factor explained most of the variance. The study tested for multicollinearity using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) analysis; all values were below 5.0, which is meaningful.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

Seven hundred fifty adolescents, representing 68% of the total, was selected using stratified random selection to reflect China’s diverse regions, provinces, and cities. The target samples are adolescents from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds who attend urban and rural schools, representing a range of ethnicities. The study employed inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure a representative and relevant sample of Chinese adolescents. Participants were 13 to 18-year-olds from around China who attended public or private schools.

Participants must be able to complete the survey alone and have parental consent. The research excluded those with significant mental diseases or cognitive disabilities since self-reported information may be inaccurate. To ensure academic continuity, the study excluded adolescents whose education had been considerably disrupted in the preceding 6 months owing to major illness or school transfers. Respondent demographics are crucial for ensuring the diversity and comprehensive analysis of this research. Adolescence is a pivotal developmental period during which one’s social, emotional, and cognitive development undergoes rapid changes. The study involved adolescents in this age range to capture their unique perspectives and experiences. Another reason gender diversity is essential is that boys and girls may have distinct ideas and behaviours. A representative sample of each gender allows the study to adjust for gender differences. The residential area is also a demographic factor due to the differences in socioeconomic and environmental conditions between rural and urban areas. The study examined the impact of external factors on academic self-efficacy and cognitive health in adolescents from diverse residential environments. Public, private, and boarding schools are also included in the adolescent’s educational background.

Due to several educational settings, the study demonstrates how different environments influence adolescents’ beliefs and behaviours. Geography is another demographic factor in China’s large and diverse environment. Since it covers adolescents from varied regions, provinces, and cities, the poll captures regional socio-cultural distinctions and experiences. The study’s primary purpose is to sample a representative subset of Chinese adolescents that accounts for these demographic parameters to improve generalizability and validity. The study’s sample is in Table 2 for ready reference.

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Table 2.

Sample of the Study.

Region/Province	City	School type	Number of participants
Beijing	Beijing	Urban	127
Guangdong	Guangzhou	Urban	101
Jiangsu	Nanjing	Urban	84
Sichuan	Chengdu	Urban	76
Shandong	Jinan	Urban	67
Hebei	Shijiazhuang	Urban	59
Liaoning	Shenyang	Urban	51
Henan	Zhengzhou	Urban	42
Anhui	Hefei	Urban	25
Gansu	Lanzhou	Rural	42
Yunnan	Kunming	Rural	34
Inner Mongolia	Hohhot	Rural	25
Guangxi	Nanning	Rural	17
Total			750

Data Collection and Research Instruments

This quantitative cross-sectional study investigates the impact of family participation, community resources, teacher support, personality traits, and other factors on the academic self-efficacy of Chinese adolescents. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure a representative sample of China’s teens. The sample of adolescents representing various locations and educational backgrounds, encompasses a range of socioeconomic statuses and school climates. The learners were stratified by urban, rural, public, or private school affiliation to ensure diversity. Data were collected using standardised questionnaires to ensure consistency and reliability. The study randomly selected strata-based schools from student and school rosters provided by multiple regional education organisations for the sample. Randomly selected students from various schools participated. Data were collected by having participants complete a standardised questionnaire with validated scales and research-specific questions. Before collecting data, the study obtained ethical approval and informed consent from participants and guardians. The survey assessed academic self-efficacy, personality traits, community resources, self-esteem, and family support using standardised questionnaires. The survey was supervised to ensure data accuracy and reduce response bias. After collecting the replies, the study employed mediation and moderation analyses to examine the correlations between the study variables. The questionnaire examined adolescents’ perspectives on family support, community resources, parent-child relationships, teacher support, personality traits, self-esteem, and academic self-efficacy. Table 3 lists the variables, scales, and sample questions for reference.

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Table 3.

Variables, Scale, and Sample Items.

Variables	Instrument/Scale	Sample question	Reference
Academic Self-Efficacy	Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES)	I am confident in my ability to succeed in my studies.	Ansong et al. (2016)
Family Support	Family Support Scale (FSS)	My family encourages me to do my best in school.	Dunst (2022)
Community Resources	Community adolescent treatment supporters (CATS)	I have access to resources in my community that help me with my studies.	Willis et al. (2019)
Parent-Child Relationship	Parent-Child Relationship Quality Scale (PCRQ)	I have a positive and supportive relationship with my parents.	Rojo-Wissar et al. (2020)
Teacher Support	Teacher Support Scale (TSS)	My teachers are supportive and encouraging in my academic pursuits.	Metheny et al. (2008)
Personality Type	Big Five Inventory (BFI)	I see myself as someone who is extraverted, enthusiastic.	Ober et al. (2021)
Self-Esteem	Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)	I am proud of my accomplishments and abilities.	Rosenberg (1965)

In particular, five items were taken from the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES) (Ansong et al., 2016) to measure academic self-efficacy, five from Dunst (2022) and Rojo-Wissar et al. (2020) to measure parent-child relationships and family support, five from Metheny et al. (2008) to measure teacher support, and five from a scale adapted from Willis et al. (2019). Community Adolescent Treatment Supporters (CATS) promote adolescent growth and academic engagement; the 5-item measure was based on this construct. The framework was created by Willis et al. (2019). The items sought Chinese teens’ opinions on local support systems that assist them to excel in school. Sample item: “I have access to community resources that help me with my studies.” For each item, the study used a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 strong agreement, to quantify support. The scale was tested for cultural relevance and language clarity before use. The Cronbach’s alpha of .79 for this scale indicated good psychometric properties and internal consistency reliability in the sample. This model of ecological systems theory captures the communitarian influence on community support and community development.

The Cronbach’s Alpha score of .84 indicates good internal consistency across teacher support measures. Cronbach’s Alpha of .91 for the Personality scale indicates strong internal consistency in the personality assessment items. Self-esteem assessments have desired internal consistency, as seen by their .87 Cronbach’s Alpha rating. Finally, Cronbach’s Alpha of .90 indicates high internal consistency for academic self-efficacy questions. Several important fit indices were employed to assess the model’s fit to the data. Structural equation modelling (SEM) relies on the chi-square goodness-of-fit test to assess the model’s replication of the covariance structure. AMOS 24.0 was used for confirmatory factor analysis to verify the measurement model. The model performed well in comparison to conventional benchmarks (Hu & Bentler, 1999. This study evaluated the observed Chi-Square value of 150.45 to assess model fit. The null hypothesis is not rejected since the p-value exceeds .05; hence, the model may accurately reflect the data. RMSEA used sophisticated models that overfit data, making it effective. The result of 0.065, below the limit of 0.08, indicates a good match. The model fits the observed data well, representing the population model. The Root Mean Squared Error (RMSEA) value is a better indicator of model fit and simplicity than the Chi-Square statistic. Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were used to assess model fit. Both indices compare the recommended model against the null model to determine its improvement. The computed CFI and TLI values were 0.92 and 0.91, respectively. Since both values are over 0.90, the model outperforms the null model and accurately describes data connections. These indices indicate that the proposed model effectively accounts for the data’s variance and covariance, and compares favourably to alternative models (Hair, 2009). Finally, the model’s average difference between observed and anticipated correlations was examined using the Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The model fits the data’s covariance structure, as evidenced by the SRMR value of 0.075, below the accepted requirement of 0.08. The low SRMR score supports the model’s fit, as its predictions align with the data. The CFA model fit indices—Chi-Square, RMSEA, CFI, TLI, and SRMR—show no significant discrepancy between observed and projected values. The recommended model accurately represents the data and is a reliable representation.

Statistical Analysis

The cross-sectional data make causal inferences challenging, although academic self-efficacy, personality traits, community resources, teacher support, family engagement, and self-esteem are strongly correlated. Even while mediation and moderation analyses reveal probable processes and interactions, they should be interpreted carefully. Without experimental or longitudinal data, the relative time and causal link of these factors cannot be determined. A longitudinal study is necessary to validate these connections and investigate developmental mechanisms over time. This constraint highlights the need for further research on Chinese adolescent development, but it does not undermine the present study’s findings.

SEM enables the investigation of complex relationships between latent and observable variables, and it corrects for measurement error. Before the structural model, a CFA verified the measurement model’s validity and dependability. This demonstrated that the concepts were distinct and loaded onto their latent variables. The mediation study revealed that self-esteem has an indirect effect on social support and academic self-efficacy. The moderating impact illuminates how character traits shape these linkages. The theoretical framework guided the selection of these statistical methods to capture the diverse social backdrop of adolescent development. To ensure the credibility of the study’s findings, it consistently offers model fit indices, coefficients, and significance values.

Ethical Considerations

The relevant Institutional Review Board approved all human subject studies to ensure ethical compliance. The study used anonymous surveys and no clinical, psychiatric, or physical therapies; thus, participants were safe. No personally identifying information was required, and participants may quit at any time without penalty, lowering the risk of harm. Weighing the minimal risks, the study may improve our understanding of adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental health. Participants had no adverse effects, and the findings may help improve educational and psychological therapy for children, families, teachers, and politicians. As authorised by the ethics committee, formal informed consent was waived since the research was non-invasive and safe. Students were clearly told of the study’s aims, that their participation was optional, that their information would be kept confidential, and that they might withdraw at any time. Being involved needed knowledge and consent. All data was securely stored, used exclusively for academic purposes, and anonymised to protect participants.

Demographic Survey of the Respondents

Table 4 contains a detailed demographic summary of the study’s sample. Most participants, 40.0%, fall within the 15 to 16 age bracket. The next closest age group is 17 to 18, with 33.3%, and 26.7% are in the 13 to 14 age group. Gender representation is balanced, with 50.7% of students are boys and 49.3% of girls. Most participants (73.3%) reside in cities, with 26.7% in rural areas. Participants attend 60.0% of public schools, 26.7% of private schools, 9.3% of boarding schools, and 4.0% of home schools. The study’s sample is comprehensive, including major Chinese cities such as Beijing (24.0%), Shanghai (26.7%), Guangzhou (20.0%), and Chengdu (16.0%). This ensures a broad representation of urban demographics. Additionally, a smaller percentage (13.3%) of individuals from other locations is also recognised, further enriching the diversity of the study’s sample (Table 4).

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Table 4.

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample.

Demographic characteristic	Frequency	Percentage
Gender
Male	380	50.7
Female	370	49.3
Age
13–14 years	200	26.7
15–16 years	300	40.0
17–18 years	250	33.3
Residential Area
Urban	550	73.3
Rural	200	26.7
Educational Background
Public School	450	60.0
Private School	200	26.7
Boarding School	70	9.3
Homeschooled	30	4.0
Geographic Location
Beijing	180	24.0
Shanghai	200	26.7
Guangzhou	150	20.0
Chengdu	120	16.0
Others	100	13.3

Descriptive Statistics of the Variables

Table 5 shows a mean score of 4.10 with a standard deviation of 0.81, indicating that participants viewed their academic competence positively. Adolescents’ scholastic success depends on self-efficacy. The Family Support scale indicates that adolescents report moderate to high levels of family support, with a mean score of 3.75 and a standard deviation of 0.85. This support is crucial to their development. This finding highlights the significant role of the family in promoting adolescent health and academic success. The community resources’ average score of 3.50 and standard deviation of 0.75 indicate that adolescents’ communities have ample recreation and educational opportunities. Adolescents and their parents enjoy solid and supportive relationships, with a mean score of 4.00 and a standard deviation of 0.80. This highlights the importance of parental advice and emotional support in shaping teenagers’ perspectives and development. The mean score of 3.80 and the standard deviation of 0.70 in teacher support underscore the importance of excellent educator-student relationships in fostering active learning and academic achievement in the classroom. With an average score of 4.50 and a standard deviation of 0.90, personality characteristics reveal distinctive tendencies in teens, influencing their behaviour and interactions. Self-esteem, a key component of psychological well-being, had an average score of 4.12 with a standard deviation of 0.82, indicating that the study participants’ self-worth and self-perception varied. This finding highlights the importance of self-esteem in adolescent well-being, prompting researchers to explore this aspect of adolescent development further.

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Table 5.

Descriptive Statistics.

Construct	Variables	Mean	SD	Min	Max
Support Systems	Family Support	3.75	0.85	1	5
	Community Resources	3.50	0.75	1	5
	Parent-Child Relationship	4.01	0.80	2	5
	Teacher Support	3.80	0.70	2	5
Individual Traits	Personality	4.50	0.90	2	5
	Self-Esteem	4.12	0.82	2	5
Outcome Variable	Academic Self-Efficacy	4.10	0.81	1	5

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Table 6 presents the results of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), a statistical method for identifying hidden dimensions or components within visible data. Starting with Factor 1, academic self-efficacy (0.80), self-esteem (0.70), and familial support (0.72) appear linked. This suggests Factor 1 may represent a notion related to academic ability and mental health.

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Table 6.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Results.

Variables	Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4	Factor 5
Family Support	0.72	0.15	0.35	0.28	0.40
Community Resources	0.60	0.80	0.25	0.35	0.45
Parent-Child Relationship	0.65	0.40	0.90	0.20	0.60
Teacher Support	0.55	0.35	0.50	0.85	0.30
Personality Type	0.45	0.60	0.40	0.35	0.95
Self-Esteem	0.70	0.45	0.60	0.55	0.75
Academic Self-Efficacy	0.80	0.55	0.75	0.70	0.90

Academic Self-Efficacy’s high loading on Factor 1 affects adolescents’ academic self-perception. Personality type (0.60) and community resources (0.80) are factor 2 factors with substantial loadings. This suggests that Factor 2 represents a construct of natural resources and individual attributes. The significant weight of community resources on Factor 2 underscores the importance of extra-personal networks for teens’ development and satisfaction. Academic self-efficacy (0.75), Parent-child relationship (0.90), and Factor 3 exhibit significant loadings. Factor 3 may be linked to family relations and academic success. The substantial loading of the Parent-child relationship on Factor 3 shows the relevance of healthy family relationships in adolescent academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy (0.70) and teacher support (0.85) have substantial factor loadings in Factor 4. Thus, Factor 4 may represent academic performance and educational help schemes. Positive teacher-student relationships promote academic success, as indicated by Factor 4’s high loading on teacher support. Finally, Self-esteem (0.75), personality type (0.95), and Factor 5 show substantial factor loadings. This supports the idea that Factor 5 is about self-perception and personality. The substantial loading of Personality type on Factor 5 indicates that personality traits significantly impact adolescents’ self-esteem and health.

Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) Estimates

Table 7 presents the regression results for academic self-efficacy in adolescents, along with the strength and relevance of correlations among variables.

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Table 7.

Regression Results for Academic Self-Efficacy.

Variables	Unstandardised coefficient	SE	β (Standardised)	t-Value	Prob. value
Family Support	0.45	0.12	.30	3.78	<.001
Community Resources	0.35	0.10	.25	3.50	.001
Parent-Child Relationship	0.50	0.15	.40	3.25	.002
Teacher Support	0.55	0.18	.35	3.05	.004
Personality Type	0.40	0.14	.20	2.85	.006
Self-Esteem	0.60	0.20	.45	3.20	.003

Family support has a significant positive correlation with academic self-efficacy (t = 3.78, p < .001), indicating its crucial role in shaping adolescent academic self-beliefs (β = .30). The findings of this research align with Bandura’s social cognitive theory, which posits that people’s judgements of their talents are heavily influenced by family and societal dynamics (Bandura, 1986). Academic achievement is only one area where supporting family members can positively impact adolescent growth (Kraft et al., 2023). Zimmer-Gembeck et al. (2023) demonstrated that when adolescents feel emotionally supported and encouraged by their family, they are more likely to believe in their academic abilities, which in turn increases their performance and participation in school. Q. Li et al. (2023) also emphasised the importance of parental involvement and communication in enhancing adolescents’ academic confidence. Sette et al. (2023) have noted that parents’ educational and career guidance considerably affects teens’ academic self-perceptions. A standardised beta value of .25 (t = 3.50, p = .001) shows a strong positive correlation between academic self-efficacy and community resources. Community resources shape adolescents’ perceptions of their intellectual selves. The findings of this research compare Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Bronfenbrenner (1979) states that environmental systems influence people’s development. They have microsystems, such as families and schools, and macrosystems, like communities and cultures. Research indicates that community services enhance adolescent academic achievement and mental health (Oberle et al., 2023). High-quality instructional materials and extracurricular activities can enhance adolescents’ academic engagement and self-efficacy (Deer et al., 2023). X. Q. Liu et al. (2023) also emphasised the importance of community centres and libraries as neighbourhood services that can enhance adolescents’ academic self-esteem through intellectual stimulation and skill development. Community-based interventions that enhance educational equity and access for underprivileged populations may increase adolescents’ academic confidence (Dinizulu et al., 2024).

The results show a strong positive association between academic self-efficacy and parent-child relationships. This highlights the significance of supportive parent-child relationships in fostering adolescents’ self-esteem and academic confidence. Bowlby’s (1979) attachment theory, which this result supports, posits that secure attachments formed in infancy contribute to psychological well-being and resilience throughout life. Parental relationships significantly impact various aspects of adolescent development, including academic achievement. Affuso et al. (2023) found that good parent-child relationships boost academic self-efficacy and motivation in adolescents. Rao and Wang (2023) also emphasised the importance of authoritative parenting—characterised by warmth, responsiveness, and clear expectations—in enhancing teens’ self-esteem and academic confidence. Ma et al. (2024) emphasised the significance of parent-child communication and participation in promoting adolescent academic growth and academic self-efficacy. The study found a positive correlation between teacher support and academic self-efficacy with a standardised beta value of .35 (t = 3.05, p = .004). Positive teacher-student relationships boost adolescents’ academic confidence and drive. This supports recent research that shows instructors improve students’ academic engagement and performance (Arifin et al. 2024). H. Khan et al. (2023) noted that teachers’ emotional, instrumental, and informational support affects students’ academic performance. Research has shown that students’ self-confidence and teacher support contribute to improved academic success (Olutola et al., 2023). Hettinger et al. (2023) found that caring and supportive instructors boost students’ academic self-efficacy and learning involvement. Teachers’ positive reinforcement and constructive criticism help students develop classroom confidence and competence (Salomovna, 2024).

Academic self-efficacy positively correlates with personality type (β = .20, t = 2.85, p = .006). These findings suggest that optimism and conscientiousness shape adolescents’ academic expectations. This validates the prior finding that personality affects academic ambition and achievement (Bardach et al. 2023). Meyer et al. (2023) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis examining the impact of openness to experience, emotional stability, and conscientiousness on academic achievement metrics, including grades, standardised test scores, and academic self-efficacy. These attributes consistently correlate with academic success. Conscientiousness predicts students’ study habits, time management, and persistence while facing academic challenges (Shaninah et al. 2024). Yildiz Durak (2023) noted that personality factors predict students’ classroom engagement and motivation, emphasising the importance of individual differences in academic performance.

The research found a positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and self-esteem. This emphasises the significance of adolescents’ positive self-images in shaping their academic attitudes and behaviours. This finding supports self-determination theory, which posits that people’s fundamental desires for relatedness, competence, and autonomy underpin their motivation and behaviour (Rigby & Ryan, 2018). Self-esteem is crucial to self-determination theory because it helps individuals believe in themselves and their abilities, which boosts motivation and resilience while setting and achieving objectives. Self-esteem influences academic attitudes and actions in various ways. Hanif et al. (2023) observed that teens with strong self-esteem are more likely to push themselves academically, have confidence in their talents, and persevere after failure. Scherrer et al. (2023) also emphasised the significance of self-esteem in shaping students’ academic self-concepts and attributions.

Mediation Estimates

Table 8 illustrates how various predictor characteristics indirectly influence academic self-efficacy through self-esteem in the mediation research.

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Table 8.

Mediation Analysis Results.

Path	β	SE	CI	p
Family Support → Self-Esteem → Academic Self-Efficacy	.25	0.08	[0.15, 0.35]	<.001
Community Resources → Self-Esteem → Academic Self-Efficacy	.20	0.07	[0.10, 0.30]	.002
Parent-Child Relationship → Self-Esteem → Academic Self-Efficacy	.30	0.10	[0.20, 0.40]	<.001
Teacher Support → Self-Esteem → Academic Self-Efficacy	.35	0.12	[0.25, 0.45]	<.001

A significant indirect effect on academic self-efficacy (β = .25, SE = 0.08, p < .001) is shown between family support and self-esteem. Thus, self-esteem may affect parental support and academic self-efficacy. Adolescents with good self-esteem believe they can achieve in school because their family supports them. The indirect link from community resources to academic self-efficacy is also significant (β = .20, SE = 0.07, p = .002). Community resources may indirectly affect academic self-efficacy by boosting self-esteem. Adolescents with access to more community resources exhibited stronger self-esteem and higher academic self-efficacy. A significant indirect relationship exists between the parent-child relationship and academic self-efficacy (β = .30, SE = 0.10, p < .001). Self-esteem mediates the relationship between academic self-efficacy and parent-child relationships. Parental dependable relationships increase teens’ self-esteem, which boosts their classroom confidence. A statistically significant indirect influence (β = .35, SE = 0.12, p < .001) exists between teacher support and academic self-efficacy. Thus, self-esteem mediates the relationship between teacher support and academic self-efficacy. Supportive teacher-student relationships increase adolescents’ academic self-efficacy and self-esteem.

Moderation Analysis

Table 9 shows that personality moderates the correlations between the studied variables.

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Table 9.

Moderation Analysis Results.

Moderator	Predictor	Outcome	β	SE	t	p
Personality Type	Family Support	Academic Self-Efficacy	0.20	0.05	4.00	<.001
Personality Type	Teacher Support	Academic Self-Efficacy	0.15	0.04	3.50	.001
Personality Type	Parent-Child Relationship	Academic Self-Efficacy	0.18	0.06	3.00	.002

The results show that personality moderates academic self-efficacy and support. The interaction between personality type and family support has a favourable effect on academic self-efficacy. Some personality traits may be linked to familial support and academic self-efficacy. Parental support might boost academic confidence in certain personality types more than others. Teacher support and personality type interaction have a favourable effect on academic self-efficacy (β = .15, SE = 0.04, t = 3.50, p = .001). This indicates that teacher support affects students’ academic self-efficacy differently, depending on their personality. Certain personality types may boost academic self-efficacy with instructor guidance. This highlights the need to consider individual traits while providing educational support. The interaction between parent-child relationship and personality type positively affects academic self-efficacy (β = .18, SE = 0.06, t = 3.00, p = .002). This shows how personality moderates the relationship between parent-child attachment and school success. Certain personality types may benefit more from positive parent-child relationships in terms of academic self-confidence. Figure 2 shows the results visualisation for ready reference.

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Figure 2.

Results summary.

According to the research, the studied variables support adolescent academic self-efficacy. The results indicate that family support, community resources, parent-child interactions, teacher support, personality type, and self-esteem have a positive and substantial impact on academic self-efficacy. Mediation and moderation analysis show that self-esteem mediates the relationship between support systems and academic self-efficacy, and personality type influences the impact of external support on academic confidence. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (EST) posits that family support, school environment, and community resources collectively influence adolescents’ academic success. According to EST, adolescents with solid family and school support networks exhibit higher academic self-efficacy, supporting the premise that interconnected environmental systems influence development. According to social cognitive theory (SCT), academic self-efficacy mediates positive reinforcement from others into internal desire and classroom achievement in teens. The results support SCT’s claim that cognitive traits affect behaviour. Conscientiousness and resilience govern the relationship between external support and self-efficacy. This integrated argument adds new insight and strengthens the study’s theory by combining EST’s environmental lens with SCT’s cognitive framework.