Construction and Empirical Study of a Somatosensory Game-Based Activity Model for the Development of Children’s Locomotor Skills

Abstract

Purpose:

The promotion of locomotor skills in early childhood is vital for fostering lifelong physical activity and combating childhood obesity. Hence, this study aims to examine the effects of a somatosensory, game-based activity model, which is rooted in the principles of embodied cognition, on the locomotor skills of preschool children.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 30 children (mean age: 5 years and 7 months) from a single school were randomly allocated into either an experimental group or a control group based on their classes. The experimental group engaged in somatosensory games for 6 weeks to learn locomotor skills, while the control group participated in conventional physical activity lessons. Locomotor proficiency was evaluated using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition, children’s interactive experiences were assessed with the Five Degrees of Happiness Smiley-Face Likert scale, and teacher attitudes were gauged through semi-structured interviews.

Results:

Both groups demonstrated improvements in locomotor skill scores; however, the experimental group showed significantly greater advancements in running and sliding. Boys excelled over girls in somatosensory tasks, and both children and the teacher expressed favorable views toward the game-based approach.

Conclusion:

Somatosensory games emerge as a practical and effective tool for enhancing early childhood locomotor development, surpassing traditional physical activity instruction.

Keywords

somatosensory interaction locomotor skills teaching model preschool children somatosensory games

Introduction

It is essential to ensure that children acquire fundamental movement skills (FMS) during their early years, as this fosters a lifelong commitment to various physical activities.¹ Locomotor skills are fundamental in developing motor skills for preschool children, facilitating flexible movement and control through the coordination of large muscle groups. Researchers have positioned motor capacity as part of developing people’s gross motor skills.² Locomotor skills, which include actions such as running, standing and stepping jumps, and lateral and forward sliding steps, are crucial during the preschool years—a critical time for physical growth and the development of gross motor skills.³ However, the development of FMS among Chinese preschool children is still at a low level.⁴

Shifts in dietary habits, health behaviors, and lifestyles in China have led to increasing health issues among children. Since the 1990s, the incidence of childhood overweight and obesity has started to rise significantly, now accelerating rapidly.⁵ Research suggests that children under the age of 8 spend nearly one-fourth of their waking hours engaged with digital screens.⁶ Excessive screen time is a strong predictor of sedentary behavior in children, which not only significantly raises the risk of childhood obesity but also greatly diminishes their enthusiasm and motivation to engage in physical activities. What’s even more alarming is that this trend is strongly connected to delays in the development of children’s motor skills.⁷ A decline in intense physical activities, along with a lack of vitality and health consciousness, poses increasing threats to the physical development of young individuals.⁸

With the increasing emphasis on health in Chinese society, schools and parents, particularly those from middle-aged and young families, are giving priority to physical exercise methods that are suitable for the school environment in order to promote children’s well-being.⁹ To address these challenges, the Chinese Ministry of Education’s “Guidelines for Learning and Development of 3–6-Year-Old Children” outlines specific objectives for motor development and recommends a variety of appropriate physical activities for preschool children.¹⁰ In October 2021, the Ministry of Education proposed to promote the “double increase” while advocating the “double reduction,” that is, to reduce the burden of students during the compulsory education stage and reduce the burden on off-school training while increasing the opportunities for students’ sports training, art education, and extracurricular activities.¹¹ The World Health Organization advises that children should participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily to ensure their physical well-being.¹² Thus, to support the comprehensive development of preschool children in health and to equip them with the essential skills for future social interactions, it is imperative to enhance exercise opportunities that focus on locomotor skills and sensory abilities related to limbs.

China is actively driving its digital transformation, particularly in the education sector, where digital physical education is increasingly emerging as a growing trend.^13,14 In this context, somatosensory games have increasingly gained attention as an innovative approach to sports education.¹⁵ In recent years, research on educational game design and application has seen a surge of interest, propelled by the rapid advancements in information network technology and multimedia interaction.^16,17 These developments are transforming the dynamics of human–machine interactions, with technology companies and research institutes worldwide striving to make these interactions more natural and precise.^18,19

Devices like Microsoft’s Kinect and Nintendo’s Wii, which utilize somatosensory technology, can dynamically capture a user’s bone and gesture movements and support voice input. This technology provides immediate feedback on player movements and precisely tracks body motions. Furthermore, the use of noncontact infrared remote sensing and posture recognition technology enables users to more effortlessly perceive and comprehend the movement patterns of their bodies. This addresses issues such as children’s low displacement and body manipulation, limited space for classroom activities, and lack of intense exercise in preschool children’s physical activities.^20–22 Somatosensory games, combining video gaming with physical exercise, effectively enhance preschool children’s cognitive and behavioral development. By encouraging activities like jumping, sliding, and jogging, these games promote motor skills such as body control and displacement. Vernadakis et al. found that children using Kinect somatosensory games showed superior motor skills, emphasizing the importance of continuous guidance and feedback (verbal, nonverbal, and error correction).²³

Sheikh et al. utilized Kinect-based somatosensory games to enhance motor skills like aiming and catching, discovering that participants surpassed nonparticipants in performance. This demonstrates that somatosensory games provide a rich and varied educational landscape for participants, fostering opportunities for the development of their motor skills.²⁴ Additionally, Ketelhut et al. employed large-screen interactive projections and somatosensory equipment to train children in specific locomotor skills, such as running, skipping, and jumping. Their results showed notable enhancements in the intensity of these exercises, affirming the utility of somatosensory games in indoor physical education settings.²⁵

However, some studies have raised concerns about the effectiveness of somatosensory games in improving basic motor skills. A systematic review by Jenny et al. found merely a handful of studies that indicated a positive impact of commercial exercise games on children’s fundamental motor skills.²⁶ Moreover, a randomized controlled trial led by Barnett et al. observed improvements in object control skills over time but no significant differences between groups in basic movements.²⁷ Similarly, a study by Gao et al. also reported that somatosensory play lacked a significant impact on children’s motor skills.²⁸

These discrepancies can be attributed to variations in study design, the diversity of sports games used, and a focus on gameplay rather than functional training, which may not achieve the required exercise intensity.^29,30 In addition, research has indicated that the positive impact of exergames may depend on the application of teaching strategies in intervention design and suggests that future researchers should explore ways to enhance the interaction between children and sports game technologies.³¹ To fully harness the potential of somatosensory games in physical education, it is essential to design a scientifically sound and well-structured teaching activity. This activity should ensure that the games not only capture children’s attention but also provide sufficient exercise intensity, thereby effectively promoting the development of their motor skills.

Embodied cognition-based activities, grounded in the theory of embodied cognition, offer an innovative educational approach that effectively integrates somatosensory game designs, creating immersive physical education activities tailored to children’s cognitive development.³² The theory of embodied cognition posits that human cognition emerges from social, cultural, and real-world behavioral interactions, and cognition has a strong correlation with bodily movement.³³ The spatial environment provides the possible conditions for the implementation of behavior, while the cognitive nervous system primarily functions to limit, regulate, and shape mental activity, activating the nerves in the brain’s motor areas linked to specific behaviors.³⁴ Research indicates that the cognitive behavior of preschool children is intimately connected to their motor development.³⁵

Somatosensory games leverage the principles of embodied cognition, engaging preschool children in physical activities through gamification and creating an educational game environment. During these training sessions, children learn to independently regulate their body movements with the aid of game guidance and teacher support, gradually acquiring and mastering various motor skills and behavioral patterns.³⁶ This approach not only improves motor skills but also fosters the overall physical and mental health development of preschool children.

China’s education system increasingly values physical activities for student development, but challenges persist, particularly the lack of effective and engaging training methods.³⁷ While the school environment offers opportunities to promote the health of preschool children, there is still a shortage of physical activity programs specifically designed for this age group.³⁸ As a result, implementing physical education activities that are both developmentally appropriate and immersive in the school setting has become a major area of research focus.³⁹ Recent studies by Chinese scholars have explored the impact of somatosensory games on children’s motor skills.^40,41 However, there is currently a lack of a structured and practical somatosensory game training model grounded in embodied cognition theory, specifically designed for school environments.

Supported by the theory of embodied cognition, which posits that motor behavior directly influences cognitive processes, this study utilizes somatosensory interaction from an embodied perspective. We integrated the development of preschool children’s locomotor skills into regular physical education sessions, employing somatosensory technology as a skill intervention tool to enhance and support the development of these essential motor skills. By developing an embodied interactive activity model tailored to the development of preschool children’s motor skills, this study aims to guide the design of teaching activities. Through interactive recording and analysis of somatosensory game activities, we have explored the specific impact of these games on preschool children’s locomotor skills and emotional performance. This approach enhances the use of somatosensory technology as a supportive tool in fostering the development of children’s motor skills.

The research questions of this study are as follows: 1.

Compared with traditional physical education activities, can somatosensory game training activities based on embodied cognitive principles improve the locomotor skills of preschool children?

Are there differences in the scores of somatosensory games used for physical training between children of different genders?

Are preschool children and the teacher willing to use somatosensory games in physical activities?

Materials and Methods

Construction of a somatosensory game-based activity model based on the concept of embodied cognition

Embodied cognition stems from the interaction between perception and motor skills, shaping how people understand the world and navigating complex social systems. Alibali highlights that cognition emerges from the dynamic interplay of sensory and physical skills, evolving through individual capabilities to create an integrated embodied experience.⁴² Drawing on these insights, this study will take the three-element framework of sensory experience, motor experience, and perceptual experience to promote the embodied cognitive development of preschool children as the main basis for the design of the somatosensory interactive game activity model, and provide guidance for the design and implementation of somatosensory game content (Fig. 1).⁴³

FIG. 1.

Development of a somatosensory game-based activity model based on the concept of embodied cognition.

Empirical elements of the embodied cognitive instructional activity model

Environmental stimulation forms sensory experiences

Sensory experience in somatosensory game activities encompasses the stimulation and feedback across various sensory channels, including vision, hearing, touch, and vestibular sense, as participants engage with the game. These sensory experiences, enhanced by environmental stimulation, ensure that preschool children receive audiovisual dual-channel feedback on their body movements promptly. In the embodied interactive activities, real-time audiovisual feedback regarding successes or failures within the game further strengthens preschoolers’ willingness to receive physical activity rewards through different sensory experiences.

Physical stimulation forms the motoric experience

Motoric experience is defined as an activity experience where individuals achieve specific objectives by mobilizing and coordinating different body parts during social interactions. In this study, motoric experience is centered around limb perception (physical stimulation), with a focus on the legs, hips, back, and other gross motor groups of preschool children. The primary training activities include running in place, skipping, and sliding.

Somatosensory games immerse preschool children in highly engaging and flow-rich game scenarios, facilitating the imitation and adherence to motor movements. Through structured and progressively challenging somatosensory interaction training, along with multiple interactive cues, these games enhance preschool children’s active perception and exploration of movements involving arms, feet, and other actions in high-level game scenes.

Cognitive stimulation forms perceptual experience

Perceptual experience refers to the cognition of the whole of things in the mind generated by the direct action of objective things on the senses and is the input of specific cognitive content and the output of skill training within game activities, essentially skill cognition (cognitive stimulation). When preschool children actively engage in game activities, they can develop and enhance their cognitive experience of specific skills through understanding game rules and tasks, supported by teacher interventions such as demonstrations, guidance, encouragement, and error correction.

Design principles for gaming activities

The principle of directive intuitiveness

As one of the characteristics of educational games, the task objectives are primarily communicated to preschool children through text or voice, helping them grasp the scope of tasks and the engaging nature of the content.⁴⁴ This approach leverages children’s multisensory experiences and intuitive understanding to facilitate the acquisition of new skills in a comprehensive manner. In gaming, goals are the foundation of the game; they are typically classified as either completed or incomplete. This quantifiable outcome is integral to the game design used in this study, where each goal must be clear and precise.⁴⁵ In designing educational games, task objectives should be clearly communicated to children through simple and easy-to-understand text or voice instructions, ensuring they quickly grasp the scope of the tasks and the engaging nature of the content.

The principle of participation autonomy

In designing teaching activities, it is crucial to recognize preschool children as the primary agents of learning, adhering to educational principles that center on preschool children. The teacher play a supportive role, aiding children throughout the knowledge-acquisition process in both teaching and learning activities. According to situated cognition theory, knowledge is contextual, and individual cognition develops through interactions between the learner and the environment. Learners can only fully understand and internalize knowledge by applying it to solve real-world problems.⁴⁶

Consequently, engaging in sports training within specific contexts is beneficial for enhancing preschool children’s motor skills. Health education for preschool children needs to provide appropriate pedagogical stimuli to help preschool children deal with the development of motor skills at all stages so that children are ready to receive specific learning. By adopting a “play to learn” approach, preschool children are afforded valuable opportunities for multisensory stimulation.⁴⁷

The principle of difficulty adaptability

In the development of somatosensory game activities, the difficulty level is tailored to match the specific skill levels of preschool children. It is crucial that the difficulty settings align with the children’s current level of motor skills to continually foster their motivation to play and their sense of achievement upon mastering challenges. Barnett et al. emphasized that children are motivated by positive feedback such as emotional enjoyment and intrinsic achievement, which can significantly increase their receptiveness to sports-related games.⁴⁸

The research suggests that sports games that are challenging, yet appropriate and reinforcing, effectively encourage children’s initiative to perceive the development and progress of their skills. Especially when learning new motor skills for the first time, a high probability of successful challenges is conducive to increasing the level of continuous effort and accomplishment of preschool children. Moreover, the difficulty of a game is a relative measure. When designing educational games, the difficulty level should be considered in conjunction with the experiences of preschool children to ensure they fully grasp the game’s content, objectives, and tasks. This approach helps maintain a balance between challenge and accessibility, making the learning experience both effective and enjoyable for preschool children.

Methods

Research design

We employed a quasi-experimental approach to assess the impact of somatosensory game-based learning activities on children’s locomotor skills. Before beginning the formal experiment, we evaluated the baseline performance of the two groups of preschool children using mean and standard deviation measures. After confirming that both groups had the same level of locomotor skills, we assigned one class to the experimental group and the other to the control group.

All children participated in the pretest. The experimental group was trained in locomotor skills using somatosensory games, while the control group received the same training in a traditional classroom setting. To avoid spillover effects, we took measures to keep the experimental and control groups apart both in terms of physical space and scheduling, thereby reducing the chances of direct interaction and communication between them. What’s more, the teacher was instructed to treat the children in both groups equally, except for the experimental intervention, and to avoid giving any additional attention or guidance to either the experimental or control group during the experiment.

Following the experiment, all children participated in a posttest. To gain insights into the children’s experiences with the somatosensory game-based learning activities, a questionnaire was administered to those in the experimental group. Additionally, one teacher was engaged in semi-structured interviews to discuss her opinions on incorporating somatosensory games into physical activity sessions.

Participants

The experiment involved a total of 30 children and one kindergarten teacher, comprising 16 males (53.33%) and 14 females (46.67%), all from two classes within the same school. The children were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 15, average age 5 years 7 months, 53% boys) or the control group (n = 15, average age 5 years 6 months, 53% boys) based on their class. The average age of the children was 5 years 7 months. The chi-square test was performed on the proportion of boys and girls in the two groups, and an independent sample t-test analysis was performed for the ages of the two classes. The results showed that there were no statistically significant differences between the experimental group and the control group in terms of age (P = 0.671 > 0.05) or gender (P = 0.642 > 0.05).

Prior to this study, none of the children had any exposure to somatosensory games. The teacher, with over 3 years of teaching experience, was responsible for both classes. Before the experiment commenced, the teacher underwent training on operating the motion-sensing equipment and incorporating somatosensory games into physical activities. Prior to participation, each participant and each participant’s parents were explained about the study thoroughly, and informed consent from them was secured.

Measurement tools

To quantify the development of the trainees’ locomotor skills effectively, a scale and a satisfaction questionnaire were utilized in this study. The scale employs The Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition by Ulrich to assess the displacement and movement skills of the participants.⁴⁹ The movements chosen for the study were running in place, tiptoe jumping, and side sliding, aligning with the traditional teaching training one by one. Each movement was evaluated based on 3–4 motor skill assessment criteria, awarding 1 point for each successfully completed skill and 0 points for any uncompleted skill. Preschool children were required to execute each movement twice, with their scores being accumulated for a comprehensive assessment.⁵⁰ This approach facilitated the monitoring of each child’s motor skills to ascertain the extent of improvement following the displacement exercises. The study evaluated three different locomotor skills—running, skipping, and sliding—each with its own maximum score: 8 points for running, 6 points for skipping, and 8 points for sliding. Consequently, the total potential score amounted to 22 points, indicating the overall locomotor performance.

After the experiment, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the teacher to gauge their attitudes toward using somatosensory games in teaching physical activities. The interview included three key questions: “What do you think about the effectiveness of using somatosensory games for teaching? What do you consider to be the advantages of using somatosensory games in physical activities? Are you willing to continue using somatosensory games as a teaching tool in the future?”

When evaluating interactive experiences, the Five Degrees of Happiness Smiley Face Likert scale is more effective than the traditional Smiley Face Likert scale developed specifically for children.⁵¹ Consequently, this study employed the Five Degrees of Happiness Smiley Face Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree) to investigate preschool children’s experience of somatosensory games in physical training.⁵² Specifically, it includes four questions: “It is very interesting to learn using somatosensory games, this somatosensory game is fun to play, this somatosensory game is easy to play, and I like to exercise through somatosensory games.” Given the younger age of the participants, the researcher read the interview questions aloud and explained their meanings to the children, who then responded using the Five Degrees of Happiness Smiley Face Likert scale.

Somatosensory game-based activity model

Somatosensory game-based learning classroom

Building on the constructed somatosensory interactive game activity model, this study designed a somatosensory game-based learning classroom aimed at promoting the development of preschool children’s physical activities. The somatosensory game-based learning classroom includes a computer, a motion-sensing device, an electronic whiteboard, and an activity area (Fig. 2).

FIG. 2.

(A) The somatosensory game-based learning classroom. (B) Activity scenes of a somatosensory sports game.

Learning activities based on somatosensory games should be student-centered. In the somatosensory game-based learning classroom, motion-sensing devices are integrated with computers and electronic whiteboards to create a fully immersive environment for children. The electronic whiteboard projects the game scenarios from the computer, offering visual and environmental stimulation that enhances the learning experience for young students. As children engage in games within the activity area, the motion-sensing device tracks their movements and relays this information to the computer. The electronic whiteboard then showcases the game environment and corresponding skeletal diagram, enabling children to see and understand their own movements and postures, thus offering them physical stimulation and enhancing their self-awareness through stimulation. As facilitators of the learning activities, the teacher offer guidance on gameplay and technical support while also correcting children’s movements and postures, providing cognitive stimulation for the children.

Learning content

Drawing upon the constructed somatosensory interactive game model, this study developed a somatosensory sports game to enhance children’s locomotor skills. Based on the principle of directive intuitiveness, the study set clear end goals for each game task and provided children with simple, actionable steps. It also offered multiple opportunities for interaction and timely feedback, ensuring a well-structured and engaging game experience. This approach aims to help children successfully achieve the set objectives. Following the principle of participation autonomy, the game incorporated easy-to-understand stories or cues that encouraged active engagement, enhancing children’s motivation to participate in the training. According to the principle of difficulty adaptability, the game prioritized the quality of children’s training experiences by designing a simple process. After 1 week of instruction, the game’s difficulty was adjusted based on the children’s athletic ability and proficiency in locomotor skills.

The game consists of three modules: (1) Run to Catch the Thief, (2) Skip to Find Treasure, and (3) Slide to School. The primary learning objective is to enhance children’s locomotor skills, including running, skipping, and sliding. The somatosensory sports game is divided into three 30-minute physical activity sessions, each corresponding to one module (Fig. 3). The total duration of the weekly physical activity course is 90 minutes.

FIG. 3.

(A) The menu. (B) The interface of the Slide to School module. (C) Game start prompt and the interface of the Run to Catch the Thief module. (D) The interface of the Skip to Find Treasure module. (E) Interface for game feedback.

To begin the training, the teacher must select the appropriate module by clicking on the corresponding icon first (Fig. 3). To align with the learning characteristics and perceptual-cognitive development of preschool children, the interactive interface of the physical training software designed in this study eliminates unnatural interactive event inputs and relies entirely on gesture and body movement controls. This approach allows physical training activities to be conducted in a more intuitive and natural interactive manner.

Before the game officially begins, the background and rules of the current module are presented to the child through voice prompts. Simultaneously, the children’s movements and postures are reflected in real time via a skeletal diagram to ensure successful identity recognition and precise interaction with the game. The child must move within a distance of 1.2–1.5 m in front of the motion-sensing device, raising their arms to calibrate their posture and enable identity recognition. This process is repeated until the on-screen skeletal diagram perfectly mirrors the child’s movements, ensuring precise interaction with the game. A countdown with sound effects then signals the children to start the game (Fig. 3).

In the “Run to Catch the Thief” module, children develop running skills by assuming the role of a police officer in a virtual environment. They control their avatar (the police officer) by running in place to move forward in real time. The objective is to catch the thief before the countdown ends, with success achieved by capturing the thief within the time limit (Fig. 3). In this module, preschool children must engage multiple large muscle groups to sustain continuous running while effectively controlling their physical stamina. The game is designed to train their running skills in an exciting and fun chase scenario. The quicker they catch the thief, the higher their score will be.

In the “Skip to Find Treasure” module, children develop skipping skills by taking on the role of a treasure hunter within a virtual environment. They use skipping movements to control their avatar (the hunter), jumping up and down in real time to explore and search for hidden “treasures” within the game. The objective is to collect all the treasures before the countdown ends to earn points. There are six treasures in total, and collecting all of them signifies the successful completion of the game. Along the way, children encounter walls or pits of varying heights, which require them to gauge and coordinate the strength of their jumps to overcome these obstacles (Fig. 3). This process effectively trains their skipping skills as they navigate through the challenges and complete the task.

In the “Slide to School” module, children develop sliding skills by controlling their avatar (the student) using sliding movements. As they make their way to school, they must collect school supplies—eight items in total, including a backpack, books, pencils, a water bottle, and more. Each time an item is collected, its name is announced to encourage children to reach small goals (Fig. 3). Throughout the game, children need to coordinate the direction and speed of their sliding movements. Successfully collecting all the items before the countdown ends signifies the completion of the game, effectively training their sliding skills.

When a child successfully completes the game’s final objective or accumulates the required score before the countdown ends, a successful interface will be triggered, along with a voice prompt to notify the child of their achievement. The score is displayed using star icons, where each half-star represents 1 point. The maximum scores vary by module: Modules 1 and 3 allow for a maximum of 8 points, and Module 2 has a cap of 6 points. The teacher has the option to click the “Try Again” button or “Return to the menu” to proceed with the next teaching activity. If the timer runs out before any points are accrued, a supportive failure screen emerges, along with an uplifting voice prompt that motivates the child to persevere and try again. Then the system automatically restarts the current module, giving the child an immediate chance to retry, learn from the experience, and continue practicing (Fig. 3).

Procedure

The experiment was conducted over a period of 5 weeks, with three 30-minute classes held weekly. In the first week, all children participated in a pretest. From the second to the fourth week, the teacher conducted three sports classes per week. Each week, the children in the experimental group commenced with approximately 6 minutes of warm-up exercises. This was succeeded by a 1-minute period allocated to understanding the game’s background and rules, followed by 2 minutes centered on learning locomotor skills. Subsequently, adhering to the teacher’s instructions, the children formed a line and took turns engaging with the somatosensory sports game to practice these skills, with each student dedicating about 1 minute to the game. Concluding the session, the teacher facilitated a 5-minute recap to summarize and review the key movement points, followed by relaxation exercises.

Children in the control group learned the same locomotor skills in a regular classroom using traditional teaching methods. Each week, after completing the same warm-up exercises as the experimental group, the teacher explained the locomotor skills. Then, the children took turns practicing these skills through traditional games. Following the training, the teacher led the children in summarizing and reviewing the key movement points, followed by relaxation exercises. The learning process for both groups was identical, with the only difference being the use of somatosensory games for the experimental group’s training.

In the fifth week, both groups of children took a posttest assessment. Additionally, the experimental group filled out a questionnaire reflecting on their experiences with the somatosensory games. Meanwhile, the teacher participated in a semi-structured interview to share their insights on using somatosensory games for facilitating physical activities.

Data analysis

Statistical analysis of quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS version 24. Statistical significance was set at <0.05. Before conducting the analysis, a thorough check was performed to identify any violations of statistical assumptions. The results of the Shapiro–Wilk Test and Levene’s Test showed no violations (Table 1).

Table 1.

Comparative Analysis of Motor Skill Development Between the Experimental and Control Groups

Item	Group	Pretest
Item	Group	M (SD)	P ^a	P ^b	F	P ^c
Run	Experimental group	2.87 (0.99)	0.156	0.857	0.03	0.858
Run	Control group	2.93 (1.03)	0.293	0.857	0.03	0.858
Skip	Experimental group	2.47 (1.25)	0.126	0.592	0.10	0.760
Skip	Control group	2.60 (1.12)	0.143	0.592	0.10	0.760
Slide	Experimental group	2.47 (1.19)	0.091	0.793	0.03	0.876
	Control group	2.53 (1.13)	0.113
		Posttest
Item	Group	M (SD)	P ^a	P ^b	F	P ^c
Run	Experimental group	6.87 (1.00)	0.025	0.531	38.33	<0.001***
Run	Control group	4.40 (1.18)	0.218	0.531	38.33	<0.001***
Skip	Experimental group	4.80 (1.15)	0.335	0.670	2.17	0.152
Skip	Control group	4.20 (1.08)	0.162	0.670	2.17	0.152
Slide	Experimental group	6.33 (1.05)	0.092	0.854	35.65	<0.001***
Slide	Control group	4.07 (1.03)	0.293	0.854	35.65	<0.001***

***P < 0.001.

Shapiro–Wilk test.

Levene’s test.

One-way analysis of variance.

M, mean; SD, standard deviation.

Descriptive statistics were performed on the general characteristics of participants in both groups. A chi-square test was performed on the proportion of boys and girls in the two groups, and an independent samples t-test analysis was performed on the average age of the two groups to test whether there was a difference in the proportion of boys and girls between the two groups and whether there was a difference in the average age.

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether there was a significant difference in the scores for the three locomotor skills between the control and experimental groups in the pretest, as well as to assess whether there were significant differences in the scores for the three locomotor skills between the experimental and control groups in the posttest. Additionally, a paired sample t-test was conducted to examine whether there were significant differences in the somatosensory game scores of children in the experimental group between the first and second weeks, and between the second and third weeks.

An independent sample t-test was conducted to analyze the age differences between boys and girls in the experimental group, revealing no significant difference. After ruling out the potential influence of age on the somatosensory game scores, another independent sample t-test was performed to compare the somatosensory game scores between boys and girls, exploring any differences in performance between the two groups.

In addition to the quantitative analysis, the teacher interview was guided by a set of semi-structured questions (see Table 2). The audio-recorded interview was transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis. Two researchers independently coded the transcript, grouped the initial codes into broader themes, and reached consensus through discussion. This process uncovered key insights into the teacher’s perceptions, challenges, and future perspectives on integrating somatosensory games. Representative quotations were selected to illustrate the main themes. The detailed findings of this analysis are reported in the section “Interview Findings.”

Table 2.

Interview Questions for the Teacher

Investigation aspect	Interview questions
1. Somatosensory games enhance locomotor skills	1. In your observation, did the use of somatosensory games improve children’s locomotor skills such as running, sliding, or skipping?2. Compared with traditional activities, how do these games influence children’s physical coordination and concentration?3. Do you think somatosensory games can effectively support and complement children’s regular physical training?
2. The effect of game intervention training	1. How would you evaluate the overall effectiveness of the somatosensory game intervention in your classroom practice?2. What advantages or disadvantages did you notice during the implementation of game-based training compared to traditional physical activities?3. What factors (e.g., equipment, space, children’s acceptance) affected the effectiveness of the intervention?
3. Willingness to use somatosensory games	1. Would you be willing to use somatosensory games in your future teaching practices? Why or why not?2. What conditions (e.g., technical support, training, curriculum integration) would make you more willing to adopt this approach?3. What are your expectations or suggestions for improving somatosensory game-based teaching (e.g., multichild activities, parent–child interaction)?

Results

The level of locomotor skills

Before initiating the formal experiment, the baseline performance of preschool children under different teaching conditions was assessed using the mean and standard deviation. One-way ANOVA confirmed that there was no significant difference in the initial motor skills between the two groups, establishing that the children in both the experimental and control groups were appropriately assigned and equivalent in skill level at the start of the study.

After the 3-week experimental period, posttest data analysis was conducted for both groups. Improvements in locomotor skills were observed in both the experimental and control groups (Table 1). These preliminary data suggest that both instructional motor interventions have a positive impact on the development of children’s physical locomotor skills. Specifically, the mean values of running, skipping, and sliding were higher in the experimental group compared with the control group. The results of the one-way ANOVA revealed significant differences between the two groups in running (F = 38.33, P < 0.001) and sliding (F = 35.65, P < 0.001), indicating a more pronounced improvement in these skills within the experimental group following somatosensory game training. However, no significant difference was noted in skipping (F = 2.17, P = 0.152 > 0.05; Table 1). This lack of difference may be due to the fact that some traditional courses can also provide good training methods for preschool children in physical movements.

The comparison with the control group demonstrates the substantial benefits of the novel somatosensory games in enhancing children’s locomotor skills. This approach holds significant potential and research value for the development of motor skills in preschool children.

The effect of game intervention training

After 3 weeks of play-based intervention, we collected and analyzed the somatosensory game scores of 15 children’s locomotor skills. The children’s performance continued to improve during the 3 weeks of play training activities, and the results increased to a certain extent compared with the previous week. The results of the paired sample t-test showed a significant difference between the two game score comparisons over a 3-week period, confirming the effectiveness of the intervention (Table 3).

Table 3.

Results of the Paired Sample t-Test for Somatosensory Game Scores over 3 Weeks in the Experimental Group

Compare data	M	SD	SE	t	P ^a
Weeks 1 and 2	−5.80	2.27	0.59	−9.88	<0.001***
Weeks 2 and 3	−4.73	1.33	0.34	−13.74	<0.001***
Gender	N	M	SD	F	P ^b
Boys	8	18.75	1.28	0.49	0.002**
Girls	7	16.43	098	0.49	0.002**

***P < 0.001, **P < 0.01.

Paired sample t-test.

Independent sample t-test.

Additionally, to determine if there are significant gender-based differences in physical training improvements through the somatosensory game, this study first conducted an independent sample t-test on the ages of boys and girls in the experimental group. There was no significant difference in the average age of boys and girls in the experimental group (P = 0.835 < 0.05), thereby ruling out age as a factor influencing the development of motor skills.

An independent sample t-test was conducted on the somatosensory game scores of male and female children in the experimental group. The result reveals a significant difference in physical training outcomes between male and female children in this somatosensory game (P = 0.002 < 0.05), with boys scoring higher than girls in the game. This indicates that boys outperformed girls in the somatosensory game-based activities (Table 3).

Willingness to use somatosensory games

Following the posttest of the experimental group, the research investigated preschool children’s opinions concerning the somatosensory game. Data from the questionnaire indicated that the majority of preschoolers found learning using somatosensory games more interesting (M = 4.20, SD = 0.68), very fun (M = 4.67, SD = 0.62), simple and straightforward (M = 4.33, SD = 0.72), and they expressed a strong preference for exercising in this way (M = 4.20, SD = 0.56; Table 4). This demonstrates that somatosensory game-based teaching activities are highly favored among this age group, which has good technical and content support for improving the classroom effect and has won the praise and affirmation of the teacher. Additionally, in the semi-structured interviews, the preschool teacher expressed a willingness to integrate somatosensory games into physical education classes, appreciating the interactive and engaging nature of the somatosensory game. They expressed an intention to utilize this somatosensory game as a teaching tool in a future classroom setting.

Table 4.

The Perception of the Children in the Experimental Group on the Somatosensory Game

Item	N	M	SD
Studying is more interesting using the somatosensory game	15	4.20	0.68
Using the somatosensory game is fun	15	4.67	0.62
This somatosensory game is simple to play	15	4.33	0.72
I like to exercise through the somatosensory game	15	4.20	0.56

M, mean; SD, standard deviation.

Interview findings

The interviewed teacher observed that somatosensory games significantly improved children’s basic locomotor skills, particularly in running and sliding. She noted that “children were more concentrated and eager to engage in tasks when they saw their avatars in action on the screen.” Compared with traditional physical activities, these games provided greater opportunities for children to practice coordination and sustain attention. Overall, she considered these games to be an effective supplement to regular physical training.

Reflecting on the intervention’s effectiveness, the teacher stated that game-based training created a more engaging classroom atmosphere and helped sustain children’s motivation. However, she also pointed out several limitations, including the time required for equipment calibration, occasional instability in gesture recognition, and constraints imposed by the classroom space. These challenges sometimes caused frustration for children and hindered the smooth organization of group activities. Nonetheless, she emphasized that, compared with traditional activities, the intervention broadened her teaching approaches and demonstrated clear advantages in terms of student engagement.

Despite the challenges, the teacher demonstrated a clear willingness to adopt somatosensory games in future teaching, provided there is sufficient training and technical support. She commented, “this approach makes PE classes more attractive,” while also highlighting the importance of professional guidance. Additionally, she expressed expectations for further development, such as expanding the system to support multichild participation and parent–child interactions. These reflections underscore both the potential and the future optimization needs of this innovative teaching approach.

Integrating with quantitative results, the teacher’s focus on the improvements in running and sliding corresponds with the significant statistical gains in these skills, while her concerns about recognition issues provide a plausible explanation for the lack of significant improvement in skipping. Her observations regarding the more active participation of boys resonate with the gender differences identified in the quantitative analysis, and her overall positive attitude aligns with the high enjoyment ratings reported by children.

Discussion

In this study, somatosensory equipment was utilized as teaching and training tools, and somatosensory depth recognition technology was employed to create an engaging virtual interactive environment suitable for preschool children to undertake locomotor training. A quasi-experimental design was adopted to compare the effectiveness of somatosensory game activities versus traditional physical activities on the development of locomotor skills in preschool children. The findings indicate that the type of activity significantly impacts locomotor skill development, and the locomotor skills of preschool children who used somatosensory games were better improved. The experimental group reported a very positive experience with using somatosensory games in physical activities. The teacher also expressed strong interest and enthusiasm, indicating a willingness to incorporate somatosensory games into future teaching practices to diversify teaching methods and enhance students’ interest in learning.

According to the results from one-way ANOVA, both the experimental and control groups demonstrated improved scores on the posttest, and there were significant differences in the two dimensions of motor skills, aligning with McGann et al.’s research, which suggests that somatosensory games enhance the development of learners’ motor skills.^22,25,50 The reason for this is that somatosensory games are engaging and capture the interest of preschool children, making them more willing to participate in locomotor skill training.⁵³ Moreover, these games provide a multisensory experience, offering not just visual and auditory stimulation, but also allowing children to see their movements reflected in the skeletal diagram and the actions of virtual characters within the games. This immersive environment enhances children’s motion perception and facilitates the improvement of their motor skills.⁵⁴ Additionally, well-designed games present children with challenges of varying difficulty levels, which helps to sustain their attention and motivation to continue playing, further promoting the development of their locomotor skills.⁵⁵ This supports the notion that motor skills can be fully developed through well-designed training and practice.^56,57 The design and ongoing refinement of educational games are crucial and must include regular updates and testing.

Additionally, it is important to consider the inconsistencies in scoring results due to gender disparities. The study revealed differences between genders: boys scored higher than girls in somatosensory games. This suggests that preschool boys are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of athleticism than girls, contributing to the disparity in game performance.²⁸ A different study conducted in Finland found that girls tend to have higher motor skills than boys, which contrasts with our findings.⁵⁸ This discrepancy may be attributed to the social and cultural differences between Finland and China. In traditional Chinese culture, men are expected to embody masculinity, leading to societal expectations for boys to excel in sports. This expectation drives families and society to provide boys with more opportunities and encouragement to participate in physical activities. On the other hand, girls may face different societal expectations, such as being quiet and introverted, resulting in relatively less support from families and society for engaging in sports.⁵⁹ Gender differences in sports skills may also stem from variations in physical education practices influenced by social and cultural contexts.⁶⁰ In teaching practice, the teacher may unconsciously give more attention and encouragement to boys, perceiving them as more suited for sports traditionally considered “male-exclusive.” In contrast, girls may be subject to more conservative expectations, and their performance and potential in physical education classes may be overlooked. Additionally, the differences in locomotor skills between boys and girls could be related to the different types of sports activities they prefer.⁶¹

The research also highlighted that the development of locomotor skills in preschool children necessitates long-term intervention for significant improvement, mirroring findings from another study that did not utilize expert-led sports activity interventions.⁶² Nevertheless, by employing positive reinforcement, effective guidance, illustration, and the creation of engaging play scenarios, the motor skills of preschool children can be further enhanced, as substantiated by the results from the experimental group.⁶³ Ultimately, the children in the experimental group revealed high satisfaction with the somatosensory game-based physical activities, which proved that the somatosensory game has good application value in improving preschool children’s motor skills.⁶⁴ Moreover, consistent with B’s findings, the teacher expressed a positive perspective of integrating somatosensory games into early childhood education, citing their interactivity and entertainment value as substantial advantages.³⁶

The integration of qualitative and quantitative findings offers a fuller picture of the study results. The significant gains in running and sliding align with the teacher’s observation that somatosensory games motivated children to concentrate and repeat tasks. In contrast, no significant difference was found in skipping, which may relate to the higher coordination demands of this skill and the teacher’s report of occasional recognition instability, causing frustration for some children. These insights indicate that while the intervention effectively supports certain locomotor skills, refinements in system accuracy and task design are needed to address more complex movements. Moreover, the teacher highlighted that game-based training created a more engaging classroom atmosphere, consistent with children’s high enjoyment ratings. At the same time, concerns about calibration, recognition, and space constraints point to barriers for broader application. Her willingness to continue using somatosensory games, alongside expectations for multichild and parent–child modes, emphasizes both the promise of this approach and the need for optimization to ensure sustainable classroom integration.

Limitations and future research

This study had several limitations, including a small sample size, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to a wider preschool population. The sample may not reflect the diversity of children in terms of age, gender, physical condition, or cultural background. Future research should aim to include a more diverse group to improve the representativeness of the results. Additionally, the study focused mainly on indoor environments, neglecting the benefits of outdoor settings, which offer varied spaces and natural elements that support physical coordination and spatial awareness. Future studies should extend somatosensory game instruction to outdoor environments for a more comprehensive evaluation.

Furthermore, this study primarily examined short-term effects, lacking follow-up on the long-term impact of somatosensory games. As physical education is a long-term process, future research should include follow-up studies to assess sustained effects on children’s development. The study also did not differentiate boys and girls as independent research groups, which may have limited the ability to accurately capture the specific impact of gender on children’s participation, skill mastery, and interest preferences in somatosensory game instruction. Future research could separate boys and girls into distinct groups and combine quantitative and qualitative methods to explore gender-specific outcomes more thoroughly.

Practical implications

Due to the limited existing research on this topic, one of the key contributions of this study is its attempt to expand knowledge on the use of somatosensory games in the classroom. The innovation of this study lies in the development of a somatosensory play training activity model grounded in the principles of embodied cognition, offering a transformative approach to preschool physical education. Specifically, this model creates an interactive learning environment through somatosensory games, encouraging active participation from children in physical training. By engaging multiple sensory channels—such as vision, hearing, and touch—somatosensory games provide preschool children with authentic sports experiences, stimulating their motivation to learn and enhancing the effectiveness of physical education. In this intuitive and natural manner, somatosensory games support the development of locomotor skills in young children.

The findings of this study also provide valuable insights for educators seeking to incorporate similar learning activities in their classrooms. Given the flexibility and adaptability of somatosensory games, this approach is not limited to preschool physical education but can be applied to other educational settings as well. The study also demonstrates the empirical benefits of somatosensory games, particularly in promoting the development of children’s locomotor skills and increasing their willingness to engage in these activities. Furthermore, physical education teaching activities based on somatosensory games provide students with more opportunities to participate in sports in the school environment.

Conclusion

This study has developed a somatosensory interactive game activity model based on embodied cognition to enhance preschool children’s locomotor skills. The results showed that somatosensory game training activities based on embodied cognition principles have effectively improved preschool children’s locomotor skills. Compared with traditional physical education activities, this approach demonstrated superior advantages in tasks such as running in place and side-stepping. Boys scored higher than girls in the somatosensory game utilized for physical training. Both the teacher and children expressed positive attitudes toward adopting somatosensory games and showed a keen interest in using them for future physical education activities.

Authors’ Contributions

X.W. was responsible for designing the study, interpreting the data, and drafting the article. Y.D. collected the data and performed the data analysis. Both X.W. and Y.D. contributed to revising the article. All authors have read and approved the final version of the article for publication.

Footnotes

Author Disclosure Statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Funding Information

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China（No. 62067009), and the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China (No. 25YJA880072).

Ethics Declarations

This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Northwest Normal University with the approval number: 2024056, dated March 4, 2024. All participants and the participant’s legal guardian have provided informed consent to participate in the study.

References

Barnett

, Stodden

, Cohen

, et al. Fundamental movement skills: An important focus. J Teach Phys Educ, 2016; 35(3):219–225; doi: 10.1123/jtpe.2014-0209

Logan

, Ross

, Chee

, et al. Fundamental motor skills: A systematic review of terminology. J Sports Sci, 2018; 36(7):781–796; doi: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1340660

Barnett

, Salmon

, Hesketh

. More active pre-school children have better motor competence at school starting age: An observational cohort study. BMC Public Health, 2016; 16(1):1068; doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-3742-1

Chen

. Physical activity, physical fitness, and body mass index in the Chinese child and adolescent populations: An update from the 2016 physical activity and fitness in China—The youth study. J Sport Health Sci, 2017; 6(4):381–383; doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2017.09.011

Zhang

, Ma

. Childhood obesity in China: Trends, risk factors, policies and actions. Glob Health J, 2018; 2(1):1–13; doi: 10.1016/S2414-6447(19)30115-0

Paulus

, Joas

, Friedmann

, et al. Familial context influences media usage in 0- to 4-year old children. Front Public Health, 2023; 11:1256287; doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1256287

Priscyla P, José M, Carla S, et al. Associations of Obesity, Movement Behaviors, and Socioeconomic Status with Fundamental Movement Skills in Children: Results from the REACT Project. American Journal of Human Biology, 2024; 36(7):e24108. Available from: https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/10.1002/ajhb.24108

Chen

S-T

, Liu

, Tremblay

, et al. Meeting 24-h movement guidelines: Prevalence, correlates, and the relationships with overweight and obesity among Chinese children and adolescents. J Sport Health Sci, 2021; 10(3):349–359; doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.07.002

Cheung

, Zhang

. Environment for preschool children to learn fundamental motor skills: The role of teaching venue and class size. Sustainability, 2020; 12(22):9774; doi: 10.3390/su12229774

10.

Gao

, Zhang

, Wu

, et al. Compliance with health-related behaviors guidelines and its relationship with multiple factors in preschool children aged 3–6 years: A national cross-sectional survey in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022; 19(3):1262; doi: 10.3390/ijerph19031262

11.

Liu

, Wang

. Exploration of sports participation and curriculum resource utilization in primary schools before and after the “double reduction. Front Psychol, 2022; 13:898675; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.898675

12.

Bull

, Al-Ansari

, Biddle

, et al. World health organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med, 2020; 54(24):1451–1462; doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2020-102955

13.

Liu

Z-M

, Chen

C-Q

, Fan

X-L

, et al. Usability and effects of a combined physical and cognitive intervention based on active video games for preschool children. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022; 19(12):7420; doi: 10.3390/ijerph19127420

14.

, Slavkova

, Gao

. Role of digitalization, digital competence, and parental support on performance of sports education in low-income college students. Front Psychol, 2022; 13:979318; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.979318

15.

Liu

, Wang

, et al. Does digitalization mitigate regional inequalities? Evidence from China. Geogr Sustain, 2024; 5(1):52–63; doi: 10.1016/j.geosus.2023.09.007

16.

Jaya

. The design and psychological considerations for effective educational games and apps in early childhood education. Advances in Educational Technology, 2023; 2(1):1–7.

17.

Yan

, Jones

, Smith

, et al. A systematic review investigating the effects of implementing game-based approaches in school-based physical education among primary school children. J Teach Phys Educ, 2023; 42(3):573–586; doi: 10.1123/jtpe.2021-0279

18.

Yeung

L-F

, Yang

, Cheng

KC-C

, et al. Effects of camera viewing angles on tracking kinematic gait patterns using azure Kinect, Kinect v2 and Orbbec Astra Pro v2. Gait Posture, 2021; 87:19–26; doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.04.005

19.

Ryselis

, Petkus

, Blažauskas

, et al. Multiple Kinect based system to monitor and analyze key performance indicators of physical training. Hum Cent Comput Inf Sci, 2020; 10(1):51; doi: 10.1186/s13673-020-00256-4

20.

Kalaitzidou

, Senechal

, Dimitriou

, et al. “E-WAFE” - A full body embodied social exergame. In: Extended Abstracts of the Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play ACM; Bremen Germany; 2022; pp. 286–290; doi: 10.1145/3505270.3558375

21.

Zhang

, Han

, Tan

, et al. Effect of exergame intervention on balance ability of adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. Games Health J, 2023; 12(3):249–258; doi: 10.1089/g4h.2022.0182

22.

Mitchell

, McLennan

, Latimer

, et al. Improvement of fundamental movement skills through support and mentorship of class room teachers. Obes Res Clin Pract, 2013; 7(3):e230–e234; doi: 10.1016/j.orcp.2011.11.002

23.

Vernadakis

, Papastergiou

, Zetou

, et al. The impact of an exergame-based intervention on children’s fundamental motor skills. Comput Educ, 2015; 83:90–102; doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.01.001

24.

Rafiei Milajerdi

, Sheikh

, Najafabadi

, et al. The effects of physical activity and exergaming on motor skills and executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder. Games Health J, 2021; 10(1):33–42; doi: 10.1089/g4h.2019.0180

25.

Ketelhut

, Röglin

, Martin-Niedecken

, et al. Integrating regular exergaming sessions in the exercube into a school setting increases physical fitness in elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. J Clin Med, 2022; 11(6):1570; doi: 10.3390/jcm11061570

26.

Jenny

, Schary

, Noble

, et al. The effectiveness of developing motor skills through motion-based video gaming: A review. Simul Gaming, 2017; 48(6):722–734; doi: 10.1177/1046878117738552

27.

Barnett

, Ridgers

, Reynolds

, et al. Playing active video games may not develop movement skills: An intervention trial. Prev Med Rep, 2015; 2:673–678; doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2015.08.007

28.

Gao

, Zeng

, Pope

, et al. Effects of exergaming on motor skill competence, perceived competence, and physical activity in preschool children. J Sport Health Sci, 2019; 8(2):106–113; doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.12.001

29.

Martin-Niedecken

, Mahrer

, Rogers

, et al. “HIIT” the ExerCube: Comparing the effectiveness of functional high-intensity interval training in conventional vs. exergame-based training. Front Comput Sci, 2020; 2:33; doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2020.00033

30.

Bai

, Lin

, Yu

, et al. The effect of planned active play on the fundamental movement skills of preschool children. Hum Mov Sci, 2024; 96:103241; doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2024.103241

31.

Kou

, Zhang

, Zhu

, et al. Effects of exergaming on executive function and motor ability in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nugrahani AD. ed. PLoS One, 2024; 19(9):e0309462; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0309462

32.

, Yang

. Experiencing the body as play: Cultivating older adults’ exergame experiences using embodied metaphors and multimodal feedback. Comput Hum Behav, 2024; 158:108280; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2024.108280

33.

Bresler

, (eds.). Knowing bodies, moving minds: Towards embodied teaching and learning. Landscapes: The Arts, Aesthetics, and Education. Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht; 2004; doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-2023-0

34.

Shapiro

. Embodied cognition, Routledge: Second Ed.. Routledge: New York; 2019. Series: New problems of philosophy; doi: 10.4324/9781315180380

35.

Bai

, Huang

, Ouyang

. Effects of group-play moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity intervention on executive function and motor skills in 4- to 5-year-old preschoolers: A pilot cluster randomized controlled trial. Front Psychol, 2022; 13:847785; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.847785

36.

Besombes

, Maillot

. Body involvement in video gaming as a support for physical and cognitive learning. Games Cult, 2020; 15(5):565–584; doi: 10.1177/1555412018820426

37.

Wang

, Zhou

. Motor development-focused exercise training enhances gross motor skills more effectively than ordinary physical activity in healthy preschool children: An updated meta-analysis. Front Public Health, 2024; 12:1414152; doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1414152

38.

Johnson

, Rudisill

, Hastie

, et al. Changes in fundamental motor-skill performance following a nine-month mastery motivational climate intervention. Res Q Exerc Sport, 2019; 90(4):517–526; doi: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1628909

39.

Zhang

, Soh

, Chan

, et al. Effect of intervention programs to promote fundamental motor skills among typically developing children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Youth Serv Rev, 2024; 156:107320; doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107320

40.

Liu

, Zeng

, McDonough

, et al. Effect of active video games on healthy children’s fundamental motor skills and physical fitness: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020; 17(21):8264; doi: 10.3390/ijerph17218264

41.

Lau

, Wang

. Effectiveness of active video game usage on body composition, physical activity level and motor proficiency in children with intellectual disability. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil, 2020; 33(6):1465–1477; doi: 10.1111/jar.12774

42.

Alibali

, Nathan

. Embodiment in mathematics teaching and learning: Evidence from learners’ and teachers’ gestures. J Learn Sci, 2012; 21(2):247–286; doi: 10.1080/10508406.2011.611446

43.

Kiefer

, Trumpp

. Embodiment theory and education: The foundations of cognition in perception and action. Trends Neurosci Educ, 2012; 1(1):15–20; doi: 10.1016/j.tine.2012.07.002

44.

Acquah

, Katz

. Digital game-based L2 learning outcomes for primary through high-school students: A systematic literature review. Comput Educ, 2020; 143:103667; doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103667

45.

El Tantawi

, Sadaf

, AlHumaid

. Using gamification to develop academic writing skills in dental undergraduate students. Eur J Dent Educ, 2018; 22(1):15–22; doi: 10.1111/eje.12238

46.

Krath

, Schürmann

, Von Korflesch

HFO

. Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Comput Hum Behav, 2021; 125:106963; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963

47.

Nava

, Föcker

, Gori

. Children can optimally integrate multisensory information after a short action‐like mini game training. Dev Sci, 2020; 23(1):e12840; doi: 10.1111/desc.12840

48.

Barnett

, Hinkley

, Okely

, et al. Use of electronic games by young children and fundamental movement skills? Percept Mot Skills, 2012; 114(3):1023–1034; doi: 10.2466/10.13.PMS.114.3.1023-1034

49.

Webster

, Ulrich

. Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the test of gross motor development—Third edition. J Mot Learn Dev, 2017; 5(1):45–58; doi: 10.1123/jmld.2016-0003

50.

McGann

, Issartel

, Hederman

, et al. Hop.Skip.Jump.Games: The effect of “principled” exergameplay on children’s locomotor skill acquisition. Brit J Educational Tech, 2020; 51(3):798–816; doi: 10.1111/bjet.12886

51.

Hall

, Hume

, Tazzyman

. Five degrees of happiness: Effective smiley face likert scales for evaluating with children. In: Proceedings of the the 15th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children ACM. Manchester, United Kingdom; 2016; pp. 311–321; doi: 10.1145/2930674.2930719

52.

Giannakos

. Enjoy and learn with educational games: Examining factors affecting learning performance. Comput Educ, 2013; 68:429–439; doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2013.06.005

53.

McDonough

, Liu

, Gao

. Effects of physical activity on children’s motor skill development: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Ekwunife OI. ed. Biomed Res Int, 2020; 2020:8160756–8160714; doi: 10.1155/2020/8160756

54.

, Song

, Cai

, et al. Are active video games useful in the development of gross motor skills among non-typically developing children? A meta-analysis. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil, 2022; 14(1):140; doi: 10.1186/s13102-022-00532-z

55.

Oppici

, Stell

, Utesch

, et al. A skill acquisition perspective on the impact of exergaming technology on foundational movement skill development in children 3–12 years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med Open, 2022; 8(1):148; doi: 10.1186/s40798-022-00534-8

56.

Dapp

, Gashaj

, Roebers

. Physical activity and motor skills in children: A differentiated approach. Psychol Sport Exerc, 2021; 54:101916; doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101916

57.

Hsiao

H-S

, Chen

J-C

. Using a gesture interactive game-based learning approach to improve preschool children’s learning performance and motor skills. Comput Educ, 2016; 95:151–162; doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.005

58.

Matarma

, Lagström

, Löyttyniemi

, et al. Motor skills of 5-year-old children: Gender differences and activity and family correlates. Percept Mot Skills, 2020; 127(2):367–385; doi: 10.1177/0031512519900732

59.

, Fan

, Brown

. Men’s sports or women’s sports?: Gender norms, sports participation, and media consumption as predictors of sports gender typing in China. Commun Sport, 2021; 9(2):264–286; doi: 10.1177/2167479519860209

60.

D’Hondt

, Venetsanou

, Kambas

, et al. Motor competence levels in young children: A cross-cultural comparison between Belgium and Greece. J Mot Learn Dev, 2019; 7(3):289–306; doi: 10.1123/jmld.2018-0044

61.

Zheng

, Ye

, Korivi

, et al. Gender differences in fundamental motor skills proficiency in children aged 3–6 years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022; 19(14):8318; doi: 10.3390/ijerph19148318

62.

Palmer

, Miller

, Meehan

, et al. The motor skills at playtime intervention improves children’s locomotor skills: A feasibility study. Child Care Health Dev, 2020; 46(5):599–606; doi: 10.1111/cch.12793

63.

Coppens

, Rommers

, Bardid

, et al. Long‐term effectiveness of a fundamental motor skill intervention in Belgian children: A 6‐year follow‐up. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2021; 31(S1):23–34; doi: 10.1111/sms.13898

64.

Lin

, Hsiao

M-Y

, Hsieh

Y-C

, et al. A preliminary study on the effect of somatosensory games upon children’s activity space and bodily movements. In: Cross-Cultural Design. Experience and Product Design Across Cultures. ( Rau

P-LP

ed.). Lecture Notes in Computer Science Springer International Publishing: Cham; 2021; pp. 127–140; doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-77074-7_10