Wearable Fitness Devices: An Investigation into Co-constructed Meaning of Use

Abstract

This article investigates practical uses of Wear Fitness Devices (WFDs) and extends literature to include a co-constructed process. Previous research has looked at various aspects of the devices. Yet, this article explores WFD at the crossroads of communication and sport. Researchers conducted 43 in-depth interviews about their WFD usage patterns. The researchers utilize the Coordinated Management of Meaning to understand the themes that emerged. Researchers also discuss the co-construction of understanding that occurred during interviews that revealed the concept of mindless usage. Researchers also demonstrate the relevance of Uses and Gratifications in uncovering five key themes: “features and benefits,” “health and fitness,” “motivation,” “communication,” and “life changes.” The interview process reveals a shift in understanding the meaning of WFD use and reveals themes that demonstrate practical usage. Suggestions for future research on WFD are also provided.

Keywords

Wearable Fitness Devices mHealth uses and gratification gamification social construction coordinated management of meaning

Over the past decade, there has been a substantial increase in use of health and fitness and technology. Wearable Fitness Devices (WFDs) have been at the center of this growth. WFD can be defined as an electronic device or computer that can be found on your body (i.e., wrist) (Wright & Keith, 2014). In terms of technology growth, the rate of which WFD has exploded since the mid-2010s has been quite remarkable. It is estimated that “one-in-five Americans use a smartwatch or fitness tracker” (Vogels, 2020). The development of the wearable fitness tracker has gone from a clip-on device that tracked step counts to now mostly a watch which calculates physical exercise, heart rate, and oxygen levels. The most popular brands in smartwatches (e.g., Apple and Fitbit) have led the way in popularity. In fact in 2016, the industry had more than 33 million devices sold (Protalinksi, 2017), and by 2021 it was expected that about 560 million units are to be in use. This equates to roughly $95 billion in revenue. In 2019, with the growth of smartwatches, there was 30% growth in total sales volume of wearable devices (Flynt, 2019).

Studies confirm that one of the largest categories of WFD users is traditional college-aged students (Nazari et al., 2017; Vooris et al., 2019). A global news survey noted that 96% of Generation Z (born post-1998) own a smartphone. Additionally, Generation Z is always connected with the use of technology being integrated into all aspects of their communication (Datta, 2019). Likewise, experimenting with new technological advancements does not hinder them. In fact, this makes them an important target market for WFD as this population is considered influencers on new technology and purchase decisions (Barker, 2020; Datta, 2019). As a result, this study explores the practical applications of the WFD primarily among college-aged users.

This study will aim to extend and enhance previous research studies (Nazari et al., 2017; Vooris et al., 2019) by including observable behavior with self-reported information. The notion that many users in fact do not know they use their WFD helped guide this study. Although previous studies have asked about enjoyed features of WFD, most previous research has utilized survey data that is reliable but misses an emic perspective of the user. Smith and Vonthethoff (2017) primarily observed videos—and included two semi-structured interviews—to provide an emic perspective. This research focuses on dialogue during interviews to provide an emic perspective of usage and answer the following research questions:

RQ1: How do users make sense of their WFD usage through co-constructed meaning?

RQ2: How do users make sense of their WFD usage for physical fitness and communication?

Literature Review

The process of analyzing technology is an exploration that is not a new phenomena for communication researchers. As technology has evolved in a more rapid fashion, it is imperative to explore the latest and emerging technology that is expected and often anticipated. Although WFD are not new—the original Fitbit debuted in 2009 (Flynt, 2019)—the emergence of smartwatches extends this category of technology. Although devices such as the Fitbit specifically focus on physical activity and fitness tracking, smartwatches extend the use to include more than fitness tracking in everyday life.

Although several researchers have investigated wearable devices (Kreitzberg et al., 2016; Vooris et al., 2019), the devices have yet to be explored from a communication perspective that provides an initial focus on meaning-making. We explore the relevant literature in support of the current study.

Wearable Fitness Devices

Vooris et al. (2019) examined individuals who purchased WFD (referred to as Wearable Fitness Trackers in the article) to better understand their usage patterns. The researchers conducted online focus groups that included a total of 31 participants. These focus groups were asked about their fitness behaviors, purchase decisions, and how they used their various fitness trackers. Of the 31 participants, the majority of users had the Fitbit brand (n = 22). Gamification played a major part in why the participants purchased their watch. The participants had the need to compete with family and friends while holding themselves accountable and being physically fit. The results highlighted the importance of esthetics and virtual rewards (gamification). These virtual rewards impacted their opinion of their fitness tracker. Last, findings noted that social pressure, personal accountability, and gamification were critical to their purchase decision.

Kreitzberg et al. (2016) began the exploration of the role of communication via WFDs on well-being. They completed 25 interviews with people WFDs (smartwatches, monitoring patches, and home automation devices). They found communication plays a vital role in encouraging physical activity. The researchers utilized the sociomaterial theory to look at the outcomes affiliated with combining the social (talking about physical achievements) and material technologies (clicking a button to share). These researchers also suggested probing into the impact of specific brands as well as functionalities and demographics on communication.

The current study addresses each of the limitations and suggestions. Since Nazari et al. (2017) as well as Vooris et al. (2019) reported that college-aged users were the largest population of people with WFD, we focused specifically on gaining the perspectives of this population. We also nearly double their sample size and ask questions regarding brand, functionalities, demographics, and popularity.

WFD usage clearly links to identifying use, and many have explored the gratifications from use.

Uses and Gratifications

According to Uses and Gratifications, humans have social and individual needs that require gratification (Katz et al., 1974), which create our expectations and necessities of media. Researchers utilize this approach to focus on the media-user and their conscious decision-making in the selection of the media they use. Beyond the decision-making, communication scholars understand there is an identifiable difference between the sought and obtained gratifications from media use (Lee & Cho, 2017). Researchers (e.g., Leung, 2003; Palmgreen & Rayburn, 1974; in Lee & Cho, 2017) have confirmed the assumption that obtained gratifications from previous use serve as motivation for future use.

Fox and Duggan (2012) addressed the efficiency, practicality, and benefits from using mHealth apps on smartphones. Lee and Cho (2017) explored the motivations behind the use of diet and fitness apps through surveys. They called for more research to provide an explanation of the uses and the motivations of mHealth apps.

Digital Devices and mHealth

Research on mHealth and apps has included various theoretical frames (e.g., Gattoni & Tenzek, 2010; Lin & Bautista, 2017), including the Diffusion of Innovations (DOI; Rogers, 2003) framework. Yet, limited research has applied DOI when looking at the use of electronic health records (EHR; Barrett & Stephens, 2017). Gattoni and Tenzek (2010) utilized DOI to focus on telemedicine and patient–provider interactions to explore how medical providers can practically use technology to enhance their interactions with patients. Aside from their practical suggestions for providers, they also mentioned the necessity for health communication scholars to seek understanding in the advances of technology.

Lin and Bautista (2017) utilized DOI to demonstrate the significance of influence, specifically impression management. Their survey evaluated mobile phone users' health literacy affiliated with mHealth apps. They specifically mentioned the impact of peer influence on young users’ desire to try new technologies. Last, they mentioned the practice of pre-installing mHealth apps on cell phones and now on WFD, enhancing the observability of the health monitoring aspect of WFD.

In regard to health monitoring, or processing, Lupton (2017) analyzes the interpretations and sense making process of data from personal usage on health monitoring devices. Lupton explores understanding through the use of three-dimensional materializations. Lupton (2020) also focuses on Australian women’s use of mHealth apps specifically through a feminist new materialism theoretical perspective. With her specific focus on health and fitness, the results of her interviews and focus groups revealed disappointment in existing technologies and a desire for new technology that adapted to a diverse enactment of women’s health (e.g., demands of being a caring mother). In a similar study, Maslen and Lupton (2020) reveal similar disappointment in apps from women with chronic illnesses.

Social Construction and Coordinated Management of Meaning

Pre-installing mHealth applications creates the opportunity to shift use of WFD, given the mere existence of the application on the WFD may influence use. When considering influence, specifically related to social support, Barrett and Stephens (2017) utilized the DOI to determine the acceptance of EHRs and adoption of a workaround. Their study demonstrated the acceptance and use was determined in relationship with coworkers, signifying the meaning and use was socially constructed. Understanding our realities are socially constructed, Pearce and Cronen (1980) explored the creation and management of social worlds through resources and practices in their theory the Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM). They explore the ideas of coordination, coherence, and mystery in the process of managing meaning (Pearce, 2009). Understanding WFD usage through a CMM lens demonstrates the meaning of usage from an emic perspective. With the goal of revealing the participants’ answers in their own words, a CMM perspective allows for the researchers to coordinate with the participants to co-construct meaning of usage through communication, while understanding that users’ meanings are also co-constructed with those they are in communication with through the WFD. The mystery of the interview interaction allows for some interviews to include more/less probing questions to allow the participants to make sense of their usage through reflection. Using CMM expands this area of research by focusing on how meaning about WFD usage is made in conversation with users. Scholars have utilized CMM in health contexts, but not mHealth, specifically. For instance, Bruss et al. (2005) demonstrated the significance of sociocultural influences and shared histories on health concerns, specifically childhood obesity. They also encouraged other health communication researchers to explore other health concerns through this lens. Park and Lee (2012) revealed the perceived trendiness of using new technology, but did not explore the meaning of trendiness or the process through which participants made sense of trendiness through communication. Previous research of WFD is missing the socially constructed meaning of understanding usage. As Smith and Vonthethoff (2017) pointed out, the “Key to understanding the implications of this emergent social practice is the initiation of more participatory empirical studies which give prominence to the social meanings that data both convey and embody as referents and mediums of the subject” (p. 19).

This theoretical framework has been used practically and as a methodology. Rascon and Littlejohn (2017) propose several practical applications of CMM as a theory and method. CMM allows us to analyze the (re)construction process that occurred during our interviews. We understand that in each interview, we were coordinating with users to assist in their process of managing the meaning of their WFD. With this in mind, the researchers chose to utilize a semi-structured interview guide to allow the interviews to flow like conversations with guiding questions that emerged in conversation in various order. Rascon and Littlejohn’s research manual influences the process of data collection and analysis of various episodes of communication, specifically the heuristics of logic (e.g., influences of use), hierarchies of meaning (e.g., mindless use), and the daisy model (e.g., overlap of stories shared) to enhance understanding. From this perspective, the researchers understand that meanings of WFD change and are constantly managed in and from interactions, including the interviews conducted in this study.

Gamification

Gamification has seen tremendous growth in the mHealth arena since 2010. Gamification includes the process of utilizing games or game-like reward and penalty, competition, and goal-based systems in order to increase engagement, incentivize users and popularize particular activities (Lister et al., 2014). Businesses have invested in gamification in order to build customer loyalty and motivate new consumers to use their product (Hamari et al., 2014). One of the key areas for companies is to have companies produce intrinsic rewards or an active ingredient to provide a game-like context to a non-game experience (Cugelman, 2013; Fankhauser, 2013). As such, companies have used points or step contests to provide a game context (Mekler et al., 2013). For example, sport team credit cards have reward platforms that can be reached when buying products at their team store or through their team app. In addition, these teams increase point values for a specific segment like tickets or merchandise. This, in turn, has led to more purchasing of products by using that specific credit card.

Gamification has shown the ability to influence the user and has the ability to enhance physical outcomes (Hamari et al., 2014). In addition to the potential influence, gamification has led to healthier habits and lifestyles. Gonzalez–Gonzalez et al. (2018) examined the video game Dance Dance Revolution which allows the user to score points through movement and the ability to compete with friends. The research found that there was a positive effect on body weight and health promotion.

The WFD market uses many of the gamification principles. These experiences include threshold targets (e.g., workouts met), game-like experiences (e.g., step challenges), narrative storytelling, and visual cues (e.g., closing rings) (Hofacker et al., 2016). For example, the Apple Watch allows the users to share workouts and goals, close their “rings,” and choose the type of workouts. Users often find goal setting as their most prominent strategy to promote physical activity (Deterding, 2015). For example, Samsung Galaxy Smartwatch, a WFD watch often used by runners, cyclers and swimmers, has features that can promote users’ solo workouts to others and provide a virtual competition and motivational tools. Fotopoulou and O’Riordan (2017) also highlighted the positive focus of Fitbit on rewards and motivation through use of badges and levels. The idea behind these gamification tools is to promote repeat use (Breski, 2017), but also to be a leader of purchasing a particular device brand (e.g., Samsung Galaxy Smartwatch). Users often note the experience of achieving badges or rewards that are linked with the mobile app that is linked with the fitness trackers (Vooris et al., 2019). As noted earlier, this can often lead to competition which was another major influence of WFD (Vooris et al., 2019).

The current study addresses the call of previous research by specifically focusing on WFD since smartphone consumers are extending their device line-up to include smartwatches and WFDs. This study focuses on expanding our understanding of the uses of apps (including mHealth apps) via WFD while still considering the connection to users’ smartphones. This study also extends the sample size to include more than communication majors while not offering extra credit for participation. The research is influenced by the methodological approach of previous research, yet, provides a unique perspective by considering the relational aspect that users reveal.

Methodology

The researchers completed semi-structured interviews over the course of 4 weeks in fall 2019. This qualitative study used a volunteer sample to select WFD users (N = 43). These volunteers were wearing WFD at the time of recruitment.

Participants

The sample included participants that were college students on multiple Midwestern university campuses. The participants were recruited by a flyer that was hung in high traffic areas. The researchers took steps to ensure participants felt the location of the interviews were private. We considered the Communication Privacy Management theory as a foundation for exploring private spaces (Petronio, 2007; Petronio & Reierson, 2009). The researcher(s) asked volunteers for their preference of space prior to starting the interview. The majority of interviews were conducted with both researchers present and asking an equal amount of questions. On two scheduled interview dates, one of the researchers was called to a meeting and not able to attend; during the few interviews that were conducted on these dates, the sole interviewer asked all of the questions. Volunteers were allowed to participate if they disclosed that they had and wore a WFD. Participants were given a consent form to read before committing to the study. It should be noted that the participants had the opportunity to opt out at any time. Researchers transcribed the interviews and completed a thematic analysis (described below) of the verbatim transcription to achieve saturation of understanding. After 43 interviews, researchers deemed they had reached data saturation as themes had emerged.

Procedure

The semi-structured interviews followed a general format of questions that was followed to ensure the interviews were focused. This format was used to allow follow-up questions and gain a deeper understanding (Fontana & Frey, 1994). During the consent process and collection of demographic information, the researchers did not use the audio-recorder. After demographic questions were collected, the researcher indicated the start of the recording. All interviews were conducted in-person. The majority of interviews were over 10 minutes in length. The semi-structured interview guide allowed the researchers to ask questions in varying orders and ask probing questions when partial answers were provided—a benefit that would not have been available via surveys. While these interviews may seem short, the researchers were able to gather enough data by asking and observing how they use their watch because there were moments and information that may not have come out if open-ended surveys had been distributed. The areas of questions included: demographics, basic information about the WFD, uses, and features. It should be noted that the demographic items were not audio-recorded. The transcribed interviews filled 109 single-spaced pages of text.

Data Analysis

Two coders analyzed the transcriptions through a two-step coding process. First cycle coding or structural coding was used during the sub-sample to identify overarching fragments from the participants that were interviewed (Saldana, 2015). A total of seven cases (16%) were coded separately by two independent researchers. Once this was completed, researchers compared their codes to obtain an acceptable intercoder reliability. During the development of categories, descriptive codes were developed. Descriptive coding aids in the discovery of topics in the results of the interviews providing an overview of what was found. Structural coding provides original categories to come to the surface for further analysis. To support this analysis, two different approaches were used to classify and conceptualize (Saldana, 2015). The initial step led to the development of categories across the variety of topics that were covered.

After completing the structural coding, a second round of coding was completed. This provided a more analytical view of the interviewee responses and is known as focused coding. The focused coding identified the most frequent and significant codes that emerged. After these salient terms were discovered by the researchers, themes were then developed prior to analyzing the remaining 36 cases. The two coders then split the remaining cases to code separately. After coding, they met to discuss the overarching themes to the codes that were discovered and potential additional themes. Not only can the user track fitness, but results support five themes of usage: “features and benefits,” “health and fitness,” “motivation,” “communication,” and “life changes.”

Results and Discussion

A total of 43 participants volunteered for this study. Of the 43 participants, 25 were female (58%). The average age was 21.9 with the oldest being 39 and the youngest being 18. The population ranged from freshman standing (n = 6) to graduate students (n = 10). The participants were mostly white (n = 34). Participants owned their device for an average of 19 months with the range being 1 month to 5 years. Through the meaning-making process of our interviews, the following themes emerged. In order to keep complete anonymity, the researchers used participant numbers (e.g., Participant 21).

Device and Syncing

The majority of the participants had Apple Watches. The participants noted they mainly picked Apple Watch because of the capability to sync with other Apple devices including iPhone, iPad, airpods, and a Macbook. For example, Participant 16 who had the Apple Watch Series 3 noted, “I am an Apple user in general so I enjoyed that aspect of it.” Participants 12, 28, and 43 acknowledged the importance of the integration with Participant 28 stating, “Since I have all apple products it synced easily.” Other top brands of watches included Samsung, Garmin, and Fitbit. Only a few participants did not know the brand (or type) of their device; yet, they mentioned the inexpensive price.

The second most popular brand of devices was Samsung Galaxy Smartwatches. Similar to the Apple Watch, most participants mentioned pairing their device with a Samsung smartphone. Other devices were mentioned less often and pairing with a device was not the most important feature; for instance, Fitbit was described as a simpler version of the smartwatches while Garmin was seen as the brand that was used more for fitness despite one’s brand of phone. Participant 27, who owned the Garmin VivoSmart HR, noted, “I enjoy the interface… Fitness goals as well. I wanted to track my steps and enter my weight. That is what attracted me to it.” Participants also noted they picked their device so they did not have to have their cell phones with them at all times (push notifications), which was important for many reasons that are demonstrated in the features and benefits below.

Features and Benefits

Many features of WFD were seen as critical to having the device. The participants consistently mentioned these items or remembered they existed as the interviewing was being conducted. It should be noted that all of the features have some sort of Bluetooth capability in connecting to the phone.

Music and earbuds

Many participants mentioned the benefits of controlling, downloading and having music on their watch. As mentioned earlier, devices are now able to transfer song files from your phone to your watch. Participant 5 noted, “I can control my Spotify on here [watch]. [Like] if I’m running or something, I can skip songs, change to a different playlist, which is fun!.” Participant 15 mentioned the ease of controlling it from the device, “Usually I just shuffle it like this [shows on watch] and then if someone’s trying to talk to me, I can easily turn it down or change the song or pause it. You can turn the volume with the little knob on the side.”

One of the other areas of music was the ability to download music from the phone to the watch. Participant 17 noted this in their response,

Yeah, actually I have music on my phone, so that downloads to my watch, and then I actually have music that actually is just on my watch, so if i don’t want to use my phone at all, I can leave my phone at home and just listen to my music and things on my watch, and that’s why I have these airpods because they hook up to my watch as well.

As noted by Participant 17, participants also mentioned the use of earbuds and the ability to control that from the headphones. Participant 2 mentioned the wireless earbuds by saying, “I can control wireless earbuds from my watch.”

GPS/navigation

The use of GPS or Navigation with the watch did not come out in the interviews until about half way through the interviews and was mentioned sparingly. Participants mentioned the uniqueness of having the watch “buzz” when a movement had to be made. Participant 33 said, “I really like GPS tracking. It tells me to go left, right, or straight. I kind of like the buzzes...I like that the most.” Participant 43 agreed, noting, “I do like the GPS feature and the buzzing on my wrist so I know when to turn. I knew the navigation was really helpful and I really liked it!” Participant 34 mentioned it being hands free by stating, “It is hands free so I like it...Physical reminder to turn here, but not picking up your phone.”

Weather

One additional area noted in “features” was knowing the weather. Some users noted it was something they would check prior to leaving their house. As Participant 32 noted, “I can know how hot it is outside. It is [state]. I love having the weather app!”

Health and Fitness

One of the main reasons participants desired a WFD was fitness which was noted by the participants with their concern for health. Participants expressed seeking a way to become aware of their overall fitness through monitoring their health and tracking activity. Participant 32 picked out their device since, “It can tell me how many miles I run and how much work I am putting into my workouts.” Participant 26 also stated, “I use it to mainly track fitness. I track my running, miles, calories and steps. I also use it to monitor [my] heart rate.” This was not surprising as similar findings were found in both Kreitzberg et al. (2016) and Vooris et al. (2019). While WFD have certainly changed over the last decade—at the time, Apple Watch was in its first iteration—the same overall concept held true.

Health monitoring

Participants noted that their WFD was imperative for them to monitor overall health. Participant 32 summed it up best when discussing her workouts and cardiovascular activity, “Overall, it gives a health assessment.” Participant 6 stated, “... It [WFD] calculates my heart rate, my O2, my steps….” Participant 38 mentioned heart rate and calories burned. They stated, “My heart rate is the most appealing and calories burned. I pay very close attention to that.” Others recognized the importance of monitoring their heart rate. Participant 2, who had noticed her heart rate was high, said,

...It notifies me every 20 minutes that my heart rate is over 120 and I’m resting. [So] I didn’t know that before, so I brought it up with my doctor and they found out that I have a really high heart rate when I’m resting, so I’m on medicine for that so it actually helps a lot to know those things, because if I didn’t know that what else could have happened? I could’ve had a heart attack!

Although “health monitoring” was a clear benefit, participants talked about monitoring other activities related to fitness tracking.

Tracking

A number of participants mentioned various ways they track their health and fitness. These areas include weight loss, fitness tracking, and female health. Overwhelmingly, participants were using the device to track their fitness. Participant 31 explicitly mentioned her reasoning for purchasing a fitness tracker, stating, “The reason I have the Apple Watch is I started to track my exercise. I tracked the amount of time I was at the gym.” Participant 1 agreed, but also mentioned female health. She stated, “I have it (FitBit) set for five times a week and I don’t change….I have it set for 10,000 steps...then I do jump rope and badminton….I also track my female health.” Participant 27 noted the Garmins tracking features by saying, “It can track my fitness, walking and running. It can also track my GPS of my runs.” Participants were mindful of their steps, calories burned, etc. Most even noted continual checking of their tracking device to see their progress.

Motivation

One distinct theme that was revealed through discussion of health and fitness was “Motivation.” Although many of the themes mentioned throughout the discussion can arguably be linked to motivation, participants explicitly mentioned motivation throughout the interviews. Some participants used encouragement synonymously with motivation, so some comments include encouragement when the message content demonstrates motivation. For instance, Participant 13 stated, “It encourages me to be more active, because I am looking at it now.” Although the participant states, “encourages,” the context reveals the actual meaning demonstrates motivation since there is a move to action rather than simply an uplift in mood (Rau et al., 2008). Participant 18 reiterates this point, she stated, “Yes, [the WFD] most definitely [has motivated me to be more active].” Participant 18 also revealed current training for a mini marathon, and discussed how the WFD has helped with pace and distance. Throughout the responses, participants expressed motivation through a few key ways: goals and reminders, practicality, and competition.

Goals and reminders

Many participants mentioned their daily goals that were linked to reminders. Although every Apple user specifically discussed the rings, all WFD users discussed some goals for the day and/or week. Some participants were intentional in their goal choice to enhance their motivation. For instance, Participant 14 stated her goal is, “8000; It was 9000, but I was so busy I wasn’t hitting that, and it made me feel like crap that I wasn’t hitting it, so I changed it down to 8000.” She reveals her personal motivation here through having control of her own goal and making it attainable. Many participants revealed pride in meeting their goals daily. Participant 20 stated, “I feel like it is a source of accomplishment, in a way, because even though I’m not doing fitness stuff--like going to the gym—I’m at least getting some steps in.” The daily goals tied closely with reminders.

Worth noting is the disclosure about setting goals. Many participants revealed their goals were set to the pre-programmed suggestions—whether they trusted the significance of the recommendations or not. One participant who utilized the suggested goals mentioned the marketing aspect of the goals. Participant 22 stated, “It does motivate me to do that [complete goals]. Even though I know the 10,000 steps was just like a marketing thing, and they didn’t even pick it based on health, I still think it is useful because it just feels good.”

Practicality

End of the day reminders seemed to have the most significance on participants. Most participants responded positively, noting the motivating influence of their WFD to encourage them to complete their goals. Many others indicated that on a typical day, they hit their goals early due to walking to and from class, practice, and at work. Participant 17 stated, “Since I have to walk to every class, usually my ring closes after classes.” The “rings” are an Apple watch feature that has the user complete a personalized stand, move, and calorie goal each day. Participant 20 also added, “Usually it’s not even the end of the day yet, like surely by the time I walk up the stairs, I’ll hit it [steps goal].” These goals and reminders demonstrate the significance of timing and realistic goals.

Since realistic and timeliness were mentioned several times, participants revealed the practicality element of motivation. Participant 13 said that she is motivated by the reminders; yet she also mentioned, “If I’m laying in bed and I get it, it’s done,” implying that the day is done, and she is not getting out of bed to complete the challenge.

Goals and reminders that were mentioned included the amount of steps, floors climbed, workouts, water intake, and breathing. For instance, one participant mentioned the reminder to drink water motivates her to do so because without her WFD she would forget. Some participants reported feeling motivated to breathe and also mentioned the situation. Many said they would take deep breaths when reminded to breathe; some pointed out that the situation matters. Participants often mentioned not being able to respond to reminders during class, but could at home or work. Participant 19 discussed the reminder to stand every hour by responding in his head saying, “I can’t it’s the middle of class.” Others mentioned adding specific challenges, like taking 250 steps or more steps every hour.

Yet, Participant 23 described an impractical reminder; she spoke as if she were the WFD when she said, “you just need 27 more minutes of exercise to get there,” out of a 30 minute workout goal. She went on to acknowledge the motivation; she said, “When it tells me to stand up, I stand up and walk around the table and come sit back down.” She then described the morning encouragement to continue her streak. Focusing on maintaining a streak relates to the competitive nature involved in WFD use.

Competition

Consistent with research on WFD and gamification (Vooris et al., 2019), our participants discussed the competitive aspect of their WFD. Participants reported linking devices, connecting with friends and family, and comparing workouts and ranking over the week through fitness apps. Even if users did not use their device for competition, they still knew of others who use it for competitions, including parents. For instance, Participant 17 discussed her mother’s activity. She stated, “She shoots for about 10,000 steps a day, and she used to be a part of competitions with her friends, so they used to compete all the time like when they were at work and stuff. She would stand up and walk all the time [at home].” Even others that did not specifically mention competition noted the discussion that occurs around the devices. Participant 16 stated, “Sometimes we talk about it [competition], but it is more of the apple versus android debate.”

Some participants combined their communication with competition in fitness apps and through sending text messages. This is consistent with Kreitzberg et al. (2016) findings that communication plays a major role in fitness. Participants revealed that messages could be encouraging as well as taunting to motivate close friends and family members. Participant 21 mentioned encouraging family members to meet their WFD goals by sending responses to linked friends and family members when they complete a workout. Participant 22 stated, “You can use the app to encourage people or taunt them, so it’s like a little competition.” Nearly every response related to competition was connected to motivation (e.g., completing 10,000 steps a day while also competing in a weekly steps challenge), and reveals the motivating aspect of the WFD. Participants also discussed being motivated by seeing the progress of others—especially those with whom they had a higher level of relational intimacy (i.e., family, friends, and romantic partners). Even amidst competition, participants include encouragement as motivating as well. Participant 14 mentioned that she reaches out to her contacts when she notices they are not tracking much activity on the app for the day or week; the participant stated, “We kind of help keep each other motivated.”

Others discussed “practicality” in relation to competition in their testimony of impact, including ability to lose and maintain weight. Participant 14 stated, “It has really helped me lose weight. I have really been trying to lose weight for a while and keep it off, and this [WFD] has helped me. I really don’t do much in the winter, but I like to jog in place or jog around the house to at least get some of the steps in besides just walking.” Similarly another participant referenced maintaining his fitness. Participant 16 stated, “It definitely helps me to maintain, because I can keep track of things easier, because I also use eating apps and stuff like that. This data that the [WFD] receives is a lot more accurate than the phone’s, in general, data. So it has definitely helped me be more accountable for the things that I do and to track those in a more effective way.” Many also address their motivation for physical activity and becoming more active since using their WFD.

One last way some participants described being motivated was by rewards, which were affiliated with competition. For instance, Participant 17 mentioned receiving rewards (e.g., digital medallions) from an app for working out all week. Another participant utilizes an app that rewards him financially for meeting the weekly competition challenges for activity.

Communication

As expected, many participants focused on their use of “communication.” This aspect was less prevalent in older WFD research simply because smartwatches did not exist. Rather than organizing their responses into text messaging, phone calls, and social media use, the responses indicated that these channels of communication were used relative to three categories: usefulness for school or work, identifying importance, and mindless usage.

School and work

Many participants noted the usefulness and convenience of their WFD while being a student. Popular responses for use included: checking emails for importance or reading announcements from Blackboard. Participant 12 stated, “I rely on my communication for my job and school and everything else I’m a part of.” Participant 23 specifically discussed glancing at her wrist in class, “instead of grabbing my phone and looking at it while the professor is looking, I can just look at my watch.” The notion of classroom usage was often related to the WFD being less distracting than a cell phone. Many students willingly shared without reserve that they use their WFD in class for receiving and responding to text messages and to monitor calls. Participant 16 mentioned, “It allows me to check my messages quickly, so I can keep up on all the things, so my phone is no longer a distraction.” Participant 18 noted, receiving notifications on the WFD “is a lot nicer because it’ll pop up on here [WFD] first, so I don’t have to pull my phone out. So if I’m in class or something, it doesn’t look like I’m texting.”

Other participants discussed turning off their notifications to avoid being bothered in class. Participant 22 stated, “I will occasionally read texts on here [WFD], but I try to stay away from that because it can be a little distracting in class.” Participant 19 discussed turning off notifications for her personal email, but notifications for her school email turned on. She went on to state, “If I see that it [an email notification] is important, like if it’s an announcement from a professor, I’ll go read it.” One participant connected school use and importance. Participant 20 stated, “I’ll read it [a text message] and be like oh is that important enough to pick my phone up...Especially when I’m studying....” Many other participants elaborated on the aspect of importance.

Importance

One element of communication that was stated regularly was using the WFD to identify the level of importance of various communication, including email, announcements, text messages, and calls. When specifically discussing the notifications, Participant 20 said, “I’ll preview it, and if I think it is important, I’ll keep it and look it up on my phone later, but if I don’t think it’s important, I’ll just delete it.” Participant 23 mentioned, “Usually I just look at it on there [WFD], and I decide whether or not it is something I need to get to right now and then I’ll respond on my phone.” Since the mention of responding on their phones emerged, several participants revealed a preference not to respond on the WFD, but still mentioned the usefulness of knowing the significance of the message or call or if it is an emergency. Others also referenced the importance of notifications from their social media and can determine if they need to look at their phone or not.

Mindless usage

When discussing listening, mindless and mindful listening are often key concepts. In the current communication age of WFD, participants demonstrated a similar concept, mindless usage. Whereas Adler and Proctor (2017) refer to mindless listening as feasible for small talk and casual conversation, participants utilized a similar listening when interacting with their WFD daily. For instance, when first asked about use of their WFD at the start of the interview, most responded minimally. For instance, many initially responded with, “to see my texts.” Yet, throughout the conversations, more and more uses were revealed and participants’ understanding of their devices were reconstructed once they focused attention on their uses—demonstrating the mindlessness of their practice, doing without thinking or attending to the act. If the researchers would not have asked questions regarding daily activities, the actual usage would have been understood in a very different way. We explored mindless/mindful use for text messaging, phone calls, and social media use here.

Text messaging

The primary way participants indicated using their WFD mindlessly included checking text messages. Some participants even noted, “that’s about it.” Further exploring the “about” word led to the disclosure of various uses, including: calls, group messaging apps (e.g., GroupMe and Slack), social media notifications (e.g., Facebook and Twitter), weather, GPS, activity (e.g., workouts and steps), health (e.g., heart rate and oxygen level). Participants described the rate at which they could respond on their devices. Nearly every device user that had text capability on their WFD mentioned the “quick” response time of text messaging. Some comments included “check messages quickly”; “respond to texts quickly”; “tap to respond to texts with pre-programmed responses”; and “just using voice command response.” Many mentioned the ability to like a notification (e.g., thumbs up, heart, and like) instantly when the information was not of high importance or did not require immediate attention.

Phone calls

Many participants mentioned the communicative act of phone calls. One participant discussed the efficiency and convenience of taking phone calls on his WFD and referenced this daily act as one he does without thinking—mindlessly. Others demonstrated the efficiency element when they described the ease of answering calls on their watch in order to have time to find their phones—another act that was done mindlessly during a mindful act of finding one’s phone. Yet use of the device for calls varied.

While a few mentioned using the device for calls regularly or daily, some users indicated never using it for calls; others mentioned the location determined their use (e.g., home); being mindful not to have phone calls when in public spaces, yet mindless use when in private settings, typically one’s home. Some mentioned the ease of just having the ability to have the phone call come in on their WFD. Participant 4 highlighted this by saying, “Yeah, I answer phone calls. Sometimes it’s just easier not to take your phone out and to just answer on here (pointing at the device).” Likewise, Participant 27 said, “I can accept calls on it, but I can’t make calls on it. I can also reject phone calls.” Others disagreed saying it was difficult to hear and focus at the same time. Participant 17 mentioned, “I tried to use the calls on my watch, but it is hard for people to hear me off of my watch, so when I get calls, I just pick up the phone, but I still get the ring on my watch.”

Social media

Many participants disclosed that they do not use it for social media, and indicate the size of the screen is too small. Yet, this understanding of usage may be attributed to adjusted use of social media on the small WFD device. Many mentioned needing to revert to their phones to see photos, comment, and respond, which made using the device for social media limited. Others related their use to importance, revealing that some social media posts may be important and require an immediate response, so the notification on the WFD was significant. Specific social media apps mentioned included: Facebook, Messenger, Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter. As users combined their communication practices with their motivations for health and fitness, participants revealed various impacts from the WFD, which we refer to as life changes.

Life Changes

“Life changes” discussed ranged from a small impact to a large health benefit. Some participants openly discussed a life change regarding weight loss. Participant 27 noted, “Yes, it [the watch] has spurred me to work out more. I wouldn’t say this was my only reason, but it definitely helped. I was 270 pounds in the beginning of 2019 and now I am 227.” Others described the uncomfortable feeling of a bare wrist when they forgot to wear their WFD. Yet, many discussed the impact of the fashion choice for their wrist as a daily practice and “life change.”

Fashion/trendy

Fashion may not seem like a “life change,” but many revealed a feeling of necessity related to their WFD. One participant indicated that his WFD was not even charged; he wore it just for fashion. Another revealed that her screen was broken on her WFD, but she continued to wear it. Other participants mentioned the coolness factor, by saying phrases like, “It’s just a cool thing to have,” or “it looks cool.”

Others discussed changing the band for fashion. Participant 20 mentioned, “you can accessorize it like with different outfits.” Participant 14 discussed buying a new band that was, “a little brighter and more fashionable.” Participant 15 mentioned matching different bands with his outfits. He said he has “probably like 8 bands.” Another participant commented on his use of bands. He stated, “[this band] is more of a fashion band. I have another one that’s a fitness band.” This participant went on to describe six various screens on his WFD and personalizing the screen. He stated, “When I get bored or when I feel I need a change in my life, I’ll do that [change the screen] just as a little pick me up.”

Gift

A final element related to life change was receiving the WFD as a gift. 15 participants discussed receiving their WFD from family members and discussed the process of setting it up and connecting with their family in a new way. Participants 5, 9, 16, and 30 discussed using the Walkie Talkie app with family members or romantic partners. Another participant discussed asking for his smartwatch to help him at school. Participant 12 said he needed a watch to see the time in class since he could not see the clock in the room. Since he needed a watch, he knew smartwatches were out and Christmas was close, so he asked for one.

Final Coordinated Thoughts

An interesting construction was the hierarchy of meaning (see Figure 1). Participants revealed the WFD culture (e.g., trendiness, new technology, and Apple family), which was often situated in relation to school or being a student (e.g. avoid disrupting class; check notifications in class).

Figure 1.

Hierarchies of meaning.

A third layer of their hierarchy was work, sport, or other extracurricular (e.g., walking for job; running for practice; and fitness for national guard). When continuing, most implied significance of use in terms of relationships (e.g., motivate or taunt friends, teammates, or family members). We see use and the understanding of use as situated in relationships; work, sport or extracurricular; school; and the overall WFD culture. While these levels emerged distinctively, the overlap of their narratives revealed a shared story of motivation, communication, and life change amidst the hierarchical levels.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to explore the various ways the participants used WFD, how the users combined their physical fitness and communication patterns and the user motivation by competition or reminders. Utilizing a CMM theoretical frame allowed the researchers to focus on the communication that created meaning in the interviews and to better understand the process of meaning-making that transpired during the interaction that was influenced by relationships. Through each episode (e.g., interview), participants revealed a reconstruction of their understanding of their WFD. Where Fotopoulou and O’Riordan (2017) discuss meaning-making through the numerical data from a Fitbit device, the meaning-making process in the current study occurred during conversations. Users did not focus on quantifying self-tracking practices; rather when answering questions, participants attended to the process of usage. Many revealed influences of purchase and use (logical force) that included trendiness and relational influence (e.g., family). Although scholars (Didžiokaitė et al., 2018; Lupton, 2016; Ruckenstein & Pantzar, 2017; Swan, 2013) have utilized the metaphor of a Quantified Self, yet self, in general, was not the focus of this study. Worth mentioning is the co-constructed process of quantifying practices. Participants in the current study mentioned the appeal of quantifying aspects of their uses primarily when discussing initial interest as well as when in competition with others. Then, the participants revealed their usage—even when a quantified practice was mentioned—primarily as social constructions made in relationship with others; when in competition, the quantified self mattered, but mattered given the relationship with the person(s) with whom they were in competition as well as support systems (e.g., family members who watched the competitive actions). Since quantifying self is still an underlying theme that participants mention, future research should investigate the impact of relationships on individuals’ desire to quantify self through WFD.

The results also indicated that users were drawn to the features such as music and earbuds, GPS/navigation, and weather as well as the activity tracking elements of each device. The importance of features was noted in previous research (Vooris et al., 2019) of users’ usage of the WFD. As such, Vooris et al. (2019), participants recognized the gamification aspect of their watch whether it was a step challenge, closing rings, or receiving a badge or reward for an accomplishment. This relates directly to WFD turning extrinsic rewards into intrinsic rewards (Fankhauser, 2013). The game elements of the watch—whether it was individual, location-based, or competition—provided an active ingredient for the continued use of a WFD (Cugelman, 2013). Last, participants revealed layers of importance that influenced and determined their usage.

Recommendations

The timing of this research was quite unique since during the analysis and writing of results, the COVID-19 pandemic began and spread rapidly. We note the data collection took place in the fall of 2019 and was analyzed in 2020. During this period, people across the globe faced a transition to social distancing unlike anyone had ever experienced. The researchers identified the significance of connection through technology (e.g., communication, motivation, health, and fitness) and saw many benefits of the WFD that could be useful for overall health and well-being during the collective efforts of sheltering at home and social distancing. Since we know that a key human desire is to meet social needs (Katz et al., 1974; Maslow, 1943), WFD may assist in meeting this need. In a recent study, Watson et al. (2021) focus on the increased use of digital communication technologies during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Although their focus was on increased sociality and intimacy, we recommend future research focus on the impact of the pandemic on WFD usage for fitness and communication. The decrease of in-person, social interactions may lead to an increase in digital, social interactions, and the understanding of this shift may demonstrate a way some were able to create better social connections and improve users’ well-being. Furthermore, this could have led to the boom in both WFD as well as at-home devices such as the Peloton bike. As part of the body of research on the quantified self, we recommend that researchers investigate the possible negative effects of using WFD.

In considering the significance of social interactions on health and wellness, we also recommend future research take a Communication Complex perspective (Parrish-Sprowl, 2014) to understand WFD usage. When looking back at the process of the current study, the researchers identify that the co-construction process impacted both the participants as well as the researchers. For instance, as the researchers learned more about the applications participants used on their WFD devices, the researchers were likely to use/try the applications themselves. Also, the focus on communication as bioactive demonstrates the impact of the researcher on the willingness of the participant to disclose information. Attending to the state (sympathetic vs parasympathetic) of the participants may allow for more in-depth answers for some participants. For instance, observations were made about participants that seemed to be operating from the sympathetic nervous system (alarmed state perhaps from nervousness or lack of relationship with the researchers) rather than a parasympathetic state (calm). When the researchers were able to assist the participant in moving from sympathetic to parasympathetic state, the participants provided more in-depth information and a clearer understanding; yet, when participants were not able to move away from the heightened state, they kept their answers shorter and less specific—which can be demonstrated in the interviews that were shorter than the majority. Although this was not an original goal of the current research project, the observations indicate that future research should consider monitoring the physiological state of participants (and researchers) through communication to decrease stress and anxiety affiliated with the research process, and enhance mood and clarity of response.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Matthew Blaszka

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