Executive Dysfunction and Depression Risk in Adolescence: Functional-MRI Analysis of Transient Network States During a Working Memory Task

Abstract

Executive-function (EF) deficits are a putative risk factor for adolescent depression, but neural correlates of this association remain unclear. Imbalances between externally and internally oriented attention underlying depression risk may be reflected in altered temporal dynamics of large-scale functional brain networks. In this longitudinal study, we evaluated neural correlates of EF-related depression risk in an adolescent sample (N = 154, ages 13–19). We applied coactivation pattern analysis to identify transient network states occurring during a working memory (WM) task and dynamic structural equation modeling to model depressive-symptom trajectories over 2 years. Results failed to support general EF as predictor of symptoms, but exploratory analyses revealed that WM deficits during low-load conditions predicted greater depression variability. WM-related risk for depression was partially mediated by longer persistence of a transient network involving coactivation of frontoparietal regions. Findings suggest that WM deficits and related temporal dynamics of frontoparietal regions may contribute to depression risk.

Keywords

depression adolescent executive function network dynamics preregistration

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Alemán-Gómez

Moeller

Bodammer

Dietz

Hetzer

Fiebach

J. B.

(2006). IBASPM: toolbox for automatic parcellation of brain structures. In Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Organization for Human Brain Mapping, June 11-15, Florence, Italy.

Allott

Fisher

C. A.

Amminger

G. P.

Goodall

Hetrick

(2016). Characterizing neurocognitive impairment in young people with major depression: State, trait, or scar? Brain and Behavior, 6(10), Article e00527. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.527

Andrews-Hanna

J. R.

Reidler

J. S.

Sepulcre

Poulin

Buckner

R. L.

(2010). Functional-anatomic fractionation of the brain’s default network. Neuron, 65(4), 550–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.02.005

Bailey

R. K.

Mokonogho

Kumar

(2019). Racial and ethnic differences in depression: Current perspectives. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 603–609. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S128584

Banich

M. T.

(2009). Executive function: The search for an integrated account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x

Barch

D. M.

Burgess

G. C.

Harms

M. P.

Petersen

S. E.

Schlaggar

B. L.

Corbetta

Glasser

M. F.

Curtiss

Dixit

Feldt

Nolan

Bryant

Hartley

Footer

Bjork

J. M.

Poldrack

Smith

Johansen-Berg

Snyder

A. Z.

, . . . WU-Minn HCP Consortium. (2013).Function in the human connectome: Task-fMRI and individual differences in behavior. NeuroImage, 80, 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.033

Baron

R. M.

Kenny

D. A.

(1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173

Beck

A. T.

Steer

R. A.

Brown

(1996). Beck Depression Inventory–II. [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00742-000

Benjamini

Hochberg

(1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Methodological, 57(1), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x

10.

Berry

A. S.

Sarter

Lustig

(2017). Distinct frontoparietal networks underlying attentional effort and cognitive control. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 29(7), 1212–1225. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01112

11.

Bertocci

M. A.

Afriyie-Agyemang

Rozovsky

Iyengar

Stiffler

Aslam

H. A.

Bebko

Phillips

M. L.

(2023). Altered patterns of central executive, default mode and salience network activity and connectivity are associated with current and future depression risk in two independent young adult samples. Molecular Psychiatry, 28(3), 1046–1056. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01899-8

12.

Brosowsky

N. P.

Murray

Schooler

J. W.

Seli

(2021). Thought dynamics under task demands: Evaluating the influence of task difficulty on unconstrained thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 47(9), 1298–1312. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000944

13.

Chantiluke

Halari

Simic

Pariante

C. M.

Papadopoulos

Giampietro

Rubia

(2012). Fronto-striato-cerebellar dysregulation in adolescents with depression during motivated attention. Biological Psychiatry, 71(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.09.005

14.

Chen

J. E.

Chang

Greicius

M. D.

Glover

G. H.

(2015). Introducing co-activation pattern metrics to quantify spontaneous brain network dynamics. NeuroImage, 111, 476–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.01.057

15.

Colich

N. L.

Foland-Ross

L. C.

Eggleston

Singh

M. K.

Gotlib

I. H.

(2016). Neural Aspects of Inhibition Following Emotional Primes in Depressed Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.982281

16.

Cohen

J. D.

Perlstein

W. M.

Braver

T. S.

Nystrom

L. E.

Noll

D. C.

Jonides

Smith

E. E.

(1997). Temporal dynamics of brain activation during a working memory task. Nature, 386(6625), 604–608. https://doi.org/10.1038/386604a0

17.

Cole

M. W.

Yarkoni

Repovs

Anticevic

Braver

T. S.

(2012). Global connectivity of prefrontal cortex predicts cognitive control and intelligence. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(26), 8988–8999. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0536-12.2012

18.

Davidovich

Collishaw

Thapar

A. K.

Harold

Thapar

Rice

(2016). Do better executive functions buffer the effect of current parental depression on adolescent depressive symptoms? Journal of Affective Disorders, 199, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.049

19.

Evans

L. D.

Kouros

C. D.

Samanez-Larkin

Garber

(2016). Concurrent and short-term prospective relations among neurocognitive functioning, coping, and depressive symptoms in youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.982282

20.

Fassett-Carman

A. N.

Moser

A. D.

Ruzic

Neilson

Jones

Barnes-Horowitz

Schneck

C. D.

Kaiser

R. H.

(2023). Amygdala and nucleus accumbens activation during reward anticipation moderates the association between life stressor frequency and depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 330, 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.149

21.

Fedorenko

Duncan

Kanwisher

(2013). Broad domain generality in focal regions of frontal and parietal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(41), 16616–16621. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1315235110

22.

First

M. B.

Williams

J. B. W.

Karg

R. S.

Spitzer

R. L.

(2015). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5—Research version. American Psychiatric Association.

23.

Freitas

L. G. A.

Bolton

T. A. W.

Krikler

B. E.

Jochaut

Giraud

A.-L.

Hüppi

P. S.

Van De Ville

(2020). Time-resolved effective connectivity in task fMRI: Psychophysiological interactions of co-activation patterns. NeuroImage, 212, Article 116635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116635

24.

Friedman

N. P.

Miyake

Altamirano

L. J.

Corley

R. P.

Young

S. E.

Rhea

S. A.

Hewitt

J. K.

(2016). Stability and Change in Executive Function Abilities From Late Adolescence to Early Adulthood: A Longitudinal Twin Study. Developmental Psychology, 52(2), 326–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000075

25.

Friedman

N. P.

Miyake

(2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023

26.

Gevins

Cutillo

(1993). Spatiotemporal dynamics of component processes in human working memory. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 87(3), 128–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(93)90119-g

27.

Glasser

M. F.

Sotiropoulos

S. N.

Wilson

J. A.

Coalson

T. S.

Fischl

Andersson

J. L.

Jbabdi

Webster

Polimeni

J. R.

Van Essen

D. C.

Jenkinson

, & WU-Minn HCP Consortium. (2013). The minimal preprocessing pipelines for the Human Connectome Project. NeuroImage, 80, 105–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.127

28.

Gordon

E. M.

Laumann

T. O.

Adeyemo

Huckins

J. F.

Kelley

W. M.

Petersen

S. E.

(2016). Generation and evaluation of a cortical area parcellation from resting-state correlations. Cerebral Cortex, 26(1), 288–303. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhu239

29.

Grahek

Shenhav

Musslick

Krebs

R. M.

Koster

E. H. W.

(2019). Motivation and cognitive control in depression. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 102, 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.011

30.

Guha

Yee

C. M.

Heller

Miller

G. A.

(2021). Alterations in the default mode-salience network circuit provide a potential mechanism supporting negativity bias in depression. Psychophysiology, 58(12), Article e13918. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13918

31.

Halse

Steinsbekk

Hammar

Å.

Wichstrøm

(2022). Longitudinal relations between impaired executive function and symptoms of psychiatric disorders in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(12), 1574–1582. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13622

32.

Hankin

B. L.

Abramson

L. Y.

Moffitt

T. E.

Silva

P. A.

McGee

Angell

K. E.

(1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(1), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.107.1.128

33.

Harvey

P. O.

Le Bastard

Pochon

J. B.

Levy

Allilaire

J. F.

Dubois

Fossati

(2004). Executive functions and updating of the contents of working memory in unipolar depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38(6), 567–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2004.03.003

34.

Hasenkamp

Wilson-Mendenhall

C. D.

Duncan

Barsalou

L. W.

(2012). Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: A fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states. NeuroImage, 59(1), 750–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.07.008

35.

Hatoum

A. S.

Rhee

S. H.

Corley

R. P.

Hewitt

J. K.

Friedman

N. P.

(2018). Do executive functions explain the covariance between internalizing and externalizing behaviors? Development and Psychopathology, 30(4), 1371–1387. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001602

36.

Hertel

(2004). Memory for emotional and nonemotional events in depression: A question of habit? In Reisberg

Hertel

(Eds.), Memory and emotion (pp. 186–216). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195158564.003.0006

37.

Hertel

P. T.

(2000). The cognitive-initiative account of depression-related impairments in memory. In Medin

D. L.

(Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 39, pp. 47–71). Academic Press.

38.

T. C.

Sacchet

M. D.

Connolly

C. G.

Margulies

D. S.

Tymofiyeva

Paulus

M. P.

Simmons

A. N.

Gotlib

I. H

Yang

T. T.

(2017). Inflexible Functional Connectivity of the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex in Adolescent Major Depressive Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(12), 2434–2445. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.103

39.

Janes

Peechatka

Frederick

Kaiser

(2019). Dynamic functioning of transient resting-state coactivation networks in the Human Connectome Project. Human Brain Mapping, 41(2), 373–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24808

40.

Joormann

Quinn

M. E.

(2014). Cognitive processes and emotion regulation in depression. Depression and Anxiety, 31(4), 308–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22264

41.

Kaiser

R. H.

Andrews-Hanna

J. R.

Metcalf

C. A.

Dimidjian

(2015). Dwell or decenter? Rumination and decentering predict working memory updating after interpersonal criticism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(6), 744–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9697-1

42.

Kaiser

R. H.

Chase

H. W.

Phillips

M. L.

Deckersbach

Parsey

R. V.

Fava

McGrath

P. J.

Weissman

Oquendo

M. A.

McInnis

M. G.

Carmody

Cooper

C. M.

Trivedi

M. H.

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2022). Dynamic resting-state network biomarkers of antidepressant treatment response. Biological Psychiatry, 92(7), 533–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.03.020

43.

Kaiser

R. H.

Kang

M. S.

Lew

Van Der Feen

Aguirre

Clegg

Goer

Esposito

Auerbach

R. P.

Hutchison

R. M.

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2019). Abnormal frontoinsular-default network dynamics in adolescent depression and rumination: A preliminary resting-state co-activation pattern analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44(9), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0399-3

44.

Kaiser

R. H.

Moser

A. D.

Neilson

Jones

Peterson

E. C.

Ruzic

Rosenberg

B. M.

Hough

C. M.

Sandman

Schneck

C. D.

Miklowitz

D. J.

(2024). Neurocognitive risk phenotyping to predict mood symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 133(1), 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000866

45.

Kaiser

R. H.

Moser

A. D.

Neilson

Peterson

E. C.

Jones

Hough

C. M.

Rosenberg

B. M.

Sandman

C. F.

Schneck

C. D.

Miklowitz

D. J.

Friedman

N. P.

(2023). Mood symptom dimensions and developmental differences in neurocognition in adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 11(2), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221111389

46.

Kaiser

Peterson

Kang

Van der Feen

Aguirre

Clegg

Goer

Esposito

Auerbach

Pizzagalli

(2019). Frontoinsular Network Markers of Current and Future Adolescent Mood Health. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.03.014

47.

Kaufman

Martin

King

R. A.

Charney

(2001). Are child-, adolescent-, and adult-onset depression one and the same disorder? Biological Psychiatry, 49(12), 980–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01127-1

48.

Koster

E. H. W.

De Lissnyder

Derakshan

De Raedt

(2011). Understanding depressive rumination from a cognitive science perspective: The impaired disengagement hypothesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(1), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.005

49.

Lamichhane

Westbrook

Cole

M. W.

Braver

T. S.

(2020). Exploring brain-behavior relationships in the N-back task. NeuroImage, 212, Article 116683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116683

50.

Letkiewicz

A. M.

Miller

G. A.

Crocker

L. D.

Warren

S. L.

Infantolino

Z. P.

Mimnaugh

K. J.

Heller

(2014). Executive function deficits in daily life prospectively predict increases in depressive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(6), 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9629-5

51.

O’Sullivan

M. J.

Mattingley

J. B.

(2022). Delay activity during visual working memory: A meta-analysis of 30 fMRI experiments. NeuroImage, 255, Article 119204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119204

52.

Liu

Zhang

Chang

Duyn

J. H.

(2018). Co-activation patterns in resting-state fMRI signals. NeuroImage, 180(Part B), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.01.041

53.

Luking

K. R.

Pagliaccio

Luby

J. L.

Barch

D. M.

(2016). Reward processing and risk for depression across development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(6), 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.04.002

54.

Maciejewski

Brieant

Lee

King-Casas

Kim-Spoon

(2020). Neural cognitive control moderates the relation between negative life events and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49(1), 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1491005

55.

Marchetti

Koster

E. H. W.

Klinger

Alloy

L. B.

(2016). Spontaneous thought and vulnerability to mood disorders: The dark side of the wandering mind. Clinical Psychological Science, 4(5), 835–857. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702615622383

56.

Maughan

Collishaw

Stringaris

(2013). Depression in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22(1), 35–40.

57.

McNeish

Hamaker

E. L.

(2020). A primer on two-level dynamic structural equation models for intensive longitudinal data in Mplus. Psychological Methods, 25(5), 610–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000250

58.

Merikangas

K. R.

J.-P.

Burstein

Swanson

S. A.

Avenevoli

Cui

Benjet

Georgiades

Swendsen

(2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017

59.

Miller

E. K.

Cohen

J. D.

(2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167

60.

Miyake

Friedman

N. P.

Emerson

M. J.

Witzki

A. H.

Howerter

Wager

T. D.

(2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

61.

Mohanty

Gitelman

D. R.

Small

D. M.

Mesulam

M. M.

(2008). The spatial attention network interacts with limbic and monoaminergic systems to modulate motivation-induced attention shifts. Cerebral Cortex, 18(11), 2604–2613. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn021

62.

Munkres

(1957). Algorithms for the assignment and transportation problems. Journal of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 5(1), 32–38.

63.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

B. O.

(2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.).

64.

Neurofunctional Imaging Group. (n.d.). AAL/AAL2/AAL3 [Computer software]. http://www.gin.cnrs.fr/en/tools/aal-aal2/

65.

Nolen-Hoeksema

(1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569

66.

Owen

A. M.

McMillan

K. M.

Laird

A. R.

Bullmore

(2005). N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25(1), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20131

67.

Paus

Keshavan

Giedd

J. N.

(2008). Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(12), 947–957. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2513

68.

M. L.

Brose

Gotlib

I. H.

Kuppens

(2016). Affective updating ability and stressful events interact to prospectively predict increases in depressive symptoms over time. Emotion, 16(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000097

69.

Pessoa

(2005). To what extent are emotional visual stimuli processed without attention and awareness? Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15(2), 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.002

70.

Peterson

E. C.

Snyder

H. R.

Neilson

Rosenberg

B. M.

Hough

C. M.

Sandman

C. F.

Ohanian

Garcia

Kotz

Finegan

Ryan

C. A.

Gyimah

Sileo

Miklowitz

D. J.

Friedman

N. P.

Kaiser

R. H.

(2022). General and specific dimensions of mood symptoms are associated with impairments in common executive function in adolescence and young adulthood. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16, Article 838645. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.838645

71.

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2014). Depression, stress, and anhedonia: Toward a synthesis and integrated model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 393–423. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185606

72.

Raichle

M. E.

(2015). The brain’s default mode network. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38, 433–447. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014030

73.

Riglin

Collishaw

Shelton

K. H.

McManus

I. C.

Ng-Knight

Sellers

Thapar

A. K.

Frederickson

Rice

(2016). Higher cognitive ability buffers stress-related depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 28(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000310

74.

Romer

A. L.

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2021). Is executive dysfunction a risk marker or consequence of psychopathology? A test of executive function as a prospective predictor and outcome of general psychopathology in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study^®. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 51, Article 100994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100994

75.

Salvato

Richter

Sedeño

Bottini

Paulesu

(2020). Building the bodily self-awareness: Evidence for the convergence between interoceptive and exteroceptive information in a multilevel kernel density analysis study. Human Brain Mapping, 41(2), 401–418. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24810

76.

Scheurich

Fellgiebel

Schermuly

Bauer

Wölfges

Müller

M. J.

(2008). Experimental evidence for a motivational origin of cognitive impairment in major depression. Psychological Medicine, 38(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707002206

77.

Scult

M. A.

Paulli

A. R.

Mazure

E. S.

Moffitt

T. E.

Hariri

A. R.

Strauman

T. J.

(2017). The association between cognitive function and subsequent depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 47(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002075

78.

Seli

Konishi

Risko

E. F.

Smilek

(2018). The role of task difficulty in theoretical accounts of mind wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 65, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.08.005

79.

Shapero

B. G.

Chai

X. J.

Vangel

Biederman

Hoover

C. S.

Whitfield-Gabrieli

Gabrieli

J. D. E.

Hirshfeld-Becker

D. R.

(2019). Neural markers of depression risk predict the onset of depression. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 285, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.01.006

80.

Snyder

H. R.

(2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 81–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028727

81.

Snyder

H. R.

Friedman

N. P.

Hankin

B. L.

(2019). Transdiagnostic mechanisms of psychopathology in youth: Executive functions, dependent stress, and rumination. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 43(5), 834–851. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-019-10016-z

82.

Snyder

H. R.

Hankin

B. L.

(2016). Spiraling out of control: Stress generation and subsequent rumination mediate the link between poorer cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science, 4(6), 1047–1064. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702616633157

83.

Solmi

Radua

Olivola

Croce

Soardo

Salazar de Pablo

Il Shin

Kirkbride

J. B.

Jones

Kim

J. H.

Kim

J. Y.

Carvalho

A. F.

Seeman

M. V.

Correll

C. U.

Fusar-Poli

(2022). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1), 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7

84.

Sormaz

Murphy

Wang

Hymers

Karapanagiotidis

Poerio

Margulies

D. S.

Jefferies

Smallwood

(2018). Default mode network can support the level of detail in experience during active task states. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(37), 9318–9323. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721259115

85.

Stuss

D. T.

Alexander

M. P.

(2007). Is there a dysexecutive syndrome? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences, 362(1481), 901–915. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2096

86.

Taylor

A. J.

Kim

J. H.

Ress

(2022). Temporal stability of the hemodynamic response function across the majority of human cerebral cortex. Human Brain Mapping, 43(16), 4924–4942. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.26047

87.

Vatansever

Menon

D. K.

Stamatakis

E. A.

(2017). Default mode contributions to automated information processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(48), 12821–12826. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710521114

88.

Vidaurre

Abeysuriya

Becker

Quinn

A. J.

Alfaro-Almagro

Smith

S. M.

Woolrich

M. W.

(2018). Discovering dynamic brain networks from big data in rest and task. NeuroImage, 180, 646–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.06.077

89.

Vytal

Cornwell

Arkin

Grillon

(2012). Describing the interplay between anxiety and cognition: From impaired performance under low cognitive load to reduced anxiety under high load. Psychophysiology, 49(6), 842–852. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01358.x

90.

Watkins

E. R.

Nolen-Hoeksema

(2014). A habit-goal framework of depressive rumination. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035540

91.

Whitmer

A. J.

Gotlib

I. H.

(2013). An attentional scope model of rumination. Psychological Bulletin, 139(5), 1036–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030923

92.

Yang

Shields

G. S.

Zhang

Chen

Romer

A. L.

(2022). Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: A meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 97, Article 102194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102194

93.

Yang

Zhang

Wang

Meng

Tian

Biswal

(2021). Reproducible coactivation patterns of functional brain networks reveal the aberrant dynamic state transition in schizophrenia. NeuroImage, 237, Article 118193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118193

94.

Yeo

B. T. T.

Krienen

F. M.

Sepulcre

Sabuncu

M. R.

Lashkari

Hollinshead

Roffman

J. L.

Smoller

J. W.

Zöllei

Polimeni

J. R.

Fischl

Liu

Buckner

R. L.

(2011). The organization of the human cerebral cortex estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity. Journal of Neurophysiology, 106(3), 1125–1165. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00338.2011

95.

Yüksel

Dietsche

Konrad

Dannlowski

Kircher

Krug

(2018). Neural correlates of working memory in first episode and recurrent depression: An fMRI study. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 84(Part A), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.02.003

96.

Zelazo

P. D.

(2020). Executive function and psychopathology: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 16(1), 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072319-024242

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

3.18 MB