Abstract
Delhi has been the seat of power for long. The British made their centre of power in Calcutta for sometimes for strategic reasons perhaps but soon they realised the importance of Delhi as the centre of power and thus, shifted the British capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911. This change brought with it many changes in all aspects of lives for the people of Delhi. This also meant changes in administration and education system of Delhi. Like all other parts of India Delhi too had its own system of education but the new scenario necessitated further expansion and development of education. The philanthropists, individuals, the Christian missionaries and the Colonial government responded to this new situation with various frames of interests and motivation. In Delhi Arya Samajists and Sanatanis played an important role in the development of education for all in general and for girls’ in particular. The British government set up the education board to meet the rising needs of education not only of native population but also for the children of the government employees.
The article explores various frames of interests and motivation that various actors, that is, the philanthropists, individuals, the Christian missionaries and the Colonial government displayed towards opening of institutions of education and particularly for girls’ education in Delhi. While as we shall see the Arya Smajists and Sanatanis were influenced by the nationalistic feelings and anti-conversion sentiments whereas the Christian missionaries had their own motivation in spreading women’s education in the area. The colonial government also moved by the logic, interest and needs of governance to enter into the issue of women’s education.
At the commencement of the nineteenth century education for women was mainly a concern of the missionaries who were permitted to come to British India since 1813 and of the few philanthropic individuals who for reasons other than those which guided the missionary activities in education showed an interest in the matters. 1
The studies on Christian Missionaries are mostly found in the form of church histories. In these the missionaries chronicled their all activities and thus these studies give us with the detailed chronicles of actions and events. Of all works on missionary activities Stephen Neil’s History of Christianity in India (Vol. I & Vol. II, Cambridge, 1984), evokes most interests. For it endeavours to give an explanation as to how did Christianity come to stay in the country. This work talks of activities of various missionary orders. When we study missionary induced social change, the role of religion advocated by it, is significant. During the nineteenth century the city of Delhi was witnessing an intellectual ferment, the focus of which was the Delhi College. The missionaries’ endeavours amongst the lower castes focused on eliminating what they thought of as character defects of these people. There was some recognition of the miserable condition of the lower castes that made them vulnerable to vices. To bring about a degree of self-sufficiency into the lives of the lower castes, the missionaries started Industrial Schools for their children. 2 In these schools training in shoe-making and carpentry were given. A rudimentary knowledge of English and Urdu was also imparted to the students of these schools. In 1896 a girls’ Industrial School for lower castes was started with the purpose of raising up the lower in the castes’ women as ‘healthy and industrious’ wives and mothers. 3 Bible classes were held in both the boys and girls Industrial Schools. Education was an important method in the missionary agenda for the upliftment of women. When the missionaries spoke of women’s education, it was a particular kind of instruction which they thought would make them into good wives and good mothers. Such education was imparted by missionaries to women both in Zenana and girls’ schools. Zenana-visiting involved calling on high caste Hindu and Muslim women, in secluded quarters of their homes in order to teach reading, writing conversational English, knitting, Arithmetic and sewing. 4
The government’s response to the missionary activities was positive where the officials felt that Christianity could be propagated without aggression towards Indian religions. The educational activities of the missionaries also drew criticism from a number of Indians. The critics of these activities underlined the harmful effect they had on the students’ religious leanings. The catchment area of the missionaries in Delhi and its vicinity was substantially eroded by the second decade of the twentieth century. 5
In the new arrangement the well-planned Imperial Capital and the Temporary Capital were both geographically separated from Shahjahanabad, but the latter was also integrated in the description of Delhi as the Capital of British India. Delhi was elevated from being a provincial Punjab town to Imperial Capital had a positive outcome in the sphere of education. Now onwards Delhi area received a special attention in terms of policy. The goal of making Delhi a ‘model educational enclave’ stemmed out many positive developments including the setting up of a medical college for women, vocational and technical institutes and the establishment of a university. In the allocation of plots that was part of a larger land-allocation policy, substantial allotments were made for the construction of schools and colleges, making Delhi far better endowed than most Indian cities of that period.
The New Capital: Education Policy
After the announcement made by King George V at the Darbar held in Delhi on December 12, 1911, the seat of the Government of India got transferred from Calcutta to Delhi yet Delhi continued to be under a Deputy Commissioner up to September 1912. The formal inauguration of the new government arrangement took place on December 23, 1912 with Lord Hardinge taking part in a ceremonial parade in the new Capital. Delhi Enclave had three segments—Delhi Municipality, the Cantonment and a Notified Area consisting of Civil Lines and the Temporary Capital in the North. Each area had its own administrative committee when the Chief Commissioner was appointed in Delhi. However, the people of Delhi were not in favour of the Notified Area and they protested vehemently against it and that led to the constitution of a new Imperial Delhi committee. W. M. Hailey, the Chief Commissioner was in dilemma for long on the issue of financial responsibilities as divided financial responsibilities between the Municipal committee and the Government of India continued to create problems. To resolve the impasse, the Imperial Delhi Committee was abandoned, its responsibilities being vested directly in the Chief Commissioner. 6
The educational structure was redesigned and a new Department of Education was constituted under the Chief Commissioner and officials from the cadre of the Punjab Educational Services were appointed to oversee the new arrangements. In purview of the department not only, educational matters but other matters related to other segments of administration were also vested. The Punjab Education System continued to influence the educational affairs of Delhi. The headquarters of Schools was shifted to Ambala soon after the creation of ‘Delhi Province’. The Municipal Board was assigned the task of primary education in Delhi city, while the District Board was made responsible for educational affairs in the rural suburbs. 7
As far as education in Delhi is concerned the period witnessed a major policy change. In 1911 at Delhi Darbar an announcement was made through which ₹5 million were demarcated for the advancement of education in India. Out of ₹5 million, the Government of India recommended for free elementary education, ₹0.5 million for girls’ education and ₹0.2 million for industrial education including an amount allocated for a hostel and a contingency grant. In the same year another very important development took place, that is, Gopal Krishan Gokhale presented a draft bill in the Indian Legislative Assembly for free and compulsory elementary education. Considering these developments, the Government of India issued a draft resolution on educational policy for betterment and expansion of mass education. 8
After the new Capital Committee was formed in Delhi, Henry Sharp, then Educational Secretary with Government of India recommended that Harcourt Butler who was the Education Commissioner should be entrusted with the responsibilities of looking into the educational matters in Delhi. The argument put forward was that that if Delhi had to be developed as the ‘Model Educational Enclave’ to be imitated and implemented by other provinces of British India later, the new arrangements needed to be in place. The Government of India arrived at a conclusion that the prevailing techniques and approaches of imparting knowledge in Delhi needed significant reforms.
The gradual transference of primary, secondary and collegiate education upon private enterprise and the constant retraction of the government from competition being largely accepted, it was mooted out in order to maintain a high standard of education the Government of India must take control by efficient means of supervision. 9
Among the high officials circle it was deliberated that the Enclave needed to be developed according to the requirement of expanding Delhi as the Capital of the British India. It was anticipated that there should be special and exclusive arrangements for educational institutions in the New Capital where people from all over India could have access to learning in modern subjects. The following institutions were expected to come up:
The Colleges—A government college would be set up, in the vicinity of the exiting colleges (St. Stephen’s and Hindu), with an arrangement of inter-collegiate lectures to be introduced which would help in setting up a University in Delhi in due course. An Oriental Research Institute The residential structure would be introduced in high schools of Delhi with the addition of a common school final examination for all schools in Delhi
The Government of India also comprehended that elementary schools in municipal areas were in a terrible state and had to be restructured. An effective network of rural schools needed to be developed. The Government of India aspired that by some efficient means some of the private institutions be adapted into elementary ones. It was decided that Reformatory and Normal schools in Delhi would continue under the Punjab government’s control. 10
A sizeable territory had to be demarcated for educational needs of the capital city particularly for institutions of higher learning as there was discussion going on pertaining to all this for quite some time for instance if a university was to be set up, and the Mission College and Hindu College were to be relocated somewhere out of the city and be entirely residential, it required a great deal of land. Moreover, the proposed Oriental Research Institute and the increasing demand for educational infrastructure to meet the requirements of the children of government employees would also require an extra amount of expenditure. The Department of Education, Delhi also proposed several schemes which would be required in case of the development of more institutions.
A spacious high school, possibly two if the number of students was found to be large A European school, as the prevailing facilities were not sufficient to meet the increasing demands A school for Indian girls The Education Department of the Government of India proposed to allocate 270 acres for the purpose, further allocated thus,
Subsequently in 1915, when the larger project of building the new capital in Delhi was taken up, several new projects on the development of educational institutions were incorporated. An Oriental Research Institute including the course on Anthropology, a Central School of Historical Research and a school of Architecture were to be established. The Education Department of Delhi did not endorse these projects because administrators found them too expensive. They put forward the argument that Delhi needed expansion in elementary and secondary education only. As a result, the New Delhi Capital Committee deferred these projects. 11
After restructuring of education on new lines in the newly-created Delhi Province, the earlier area of Delhi as Punjab District was abridged and the number of indigenous schools also reduced considerably, but the significance of these schools could not be overestimated. As the report of the Inspector of Schools (Ambala Division) observed in 1914–1915,
In Delhi Province, both for boys and girls, the people are attracted to these schools largely because of the religious emphasis, and this fact must be taken into account in the development of any rational system of education in Delhi.
12
It was approved that the indigenous schools in Delhi be made more compatible and financial provision be extended to some schools which would satisfy the needs of the government department and also an attempt be made to integrate them with the government system.
Education figures in Delhi, 1913–1914.
Total number of students and religion-wise number.
Total number of passed candidates and religion-wise number of passed candidates.
The Census records for Delhi city in 1911 gives a different picture. The Sikhs were the most literate group, followed by the Jains whose literacy rate was around 39%, Brahmins were next with 33%. The percentage of Muslim literates had improved as compared to 1901 Census, that is, 1901 22%, 1911 25%, the other residents of Delhi city had a very low percentage of literacy. 13
Educational Institutions: Grants-in-Aid and Land Grants
In 1913–1914 the Capital Committee commenced working on constructing the infrastructure for the new capital, the Government of India decided that land grants would be sanctioned in New Delhi to educational and religious agencies for philanthropic purposes at concessional rates. Earlier the Education Department of Delhi had emphasised the need to demarcate an appropriate area for the construction of educational buildings in the Capital city. Due to the paucity of area to accommodate schools and colleges, the majority of primary schools was in a very poor condition and mostly situated in unhygienic rented buildings without any provision for playgrounds. The situation changed somewhat in 1915–1916 when the military authorities relinquished Daryaganj and Faiz Bazaar. The area was taken over by the Delhi administration. After takeover of the area, a proposal was presented for developing it as the elite European residential complex where higher bureaucrats should be given accommodation but soon this proposal was abandoned as the health department found out after conducting survey of the area that the area was not that suitable for the purpose. The Superintendent of Education submitted a draft to the Deputy Commissioner about the requirements of the department. Hence, the proposal of the Education Department was approved and the area was granted on perpetual leases to educational institutions at the concessional rate of ₹3 per 100 square yards for 30 years. The Education Department, Delhi put down the principles for school management to apply for such grants. Many schools applied for these grants. 14
When the Capital was transferred in 1912 to Delhi, the administrative staffs were also shifted to Delhi and were located in the areas of Timarpur and Raisina. The educational facilities for the children of officials and staffs needed to be arranged. The disadvantage was that their children could not attend schools situated in Delhi city which were inaccessible because of the distance and heavy traffic. The officials of the Civil Secretariat were concerned and they formed an organisation and petitioned the Chief Commissioner in 1919 to provide educational facilities in their area of residence, Timarpur and Raisina. The Education Department accordingly upgraded a primary school to the middle level in Timarpur, that is, Bengali Boys School and a new middle school was opened at Raisina in 1920–1921.
15
In 1919 Montague-Chelmsford reforms were announced, a select committee looked into the matters of education in Delhi. The responsibility for the all aspects of education in each province was to be transferred. At this point of time much importance was given to the educational advancement of depressed classes. When the reforms were announced, the Punjab Education Department was put under the charge of a ministry, but in the case of Delhi where the Chief Commissioner worked in the capacity of local government and also, he was the sole representative of Delhi in the Legislative Assembly, a change was recommended. A separate department of education was constituted in 1920 and a post of Superintendent of Education was created in the ‘Indian Educational Services’ to which L. T. Watkins was appointed in 1920. He was also given the charge of Ajmer-Mewara. It was decided that the summer office would be at Abu while the winter office would remain at Delhi. Financial requirements would be shared by both governments on a proportional basis, at ₹30,000 to ₹40,000 per annum. When this post was created Delhi had the following:
One assistant inspector of schools One district inspector of schools (temporary) One assistant superintendent for girls’ education 45 clerical staff of the education department
16
A new system of grants-in-aid, but that was compatible with the Punjab system was introduced. Grants were of three types—
Capital grants for building, maintenance and equipment
Direct maintenance grants to colleges and secondary schools in the province
Grants to local bodies for maintenance of vernacular schools.
Expenditure - 1920–1921.
The system of grants in Delhi appeared to be malfunctioning and considerable criticism was put forward after the provincialisation scheme because the comparative figures for the municipality and district board suggested that there was a heavy burden on the district board funds.
The data suggests that the district board had to spend 25% more as compared to the municipality, from its income, thus overlooking other areas though the restructuring of the department of education in Delhi resulted in a systematic growth of school education. The emphasis now was on many new aspects. The first was the introduction of boy scouts and girl guides in the schools of Delhi province, in 1919–1920 as suggested by the Superintendent of Education, Delhi. The objective of this policy was that school boys and girls should get training in social service and simple hygiene in a practical manner because the policy measures of the Government of India underlined the development of physical education in schools. While bringing about a change in policy of the Government of India, two very important issues came up for discussion for improvement of British Indian schools which was also implemented in the Delhi Province. These were
Introduction of the bilingual system for secondary education in Delhi Province
Introduction of a ‘conscience class’ or religious or moral class instruction in the non-Christian schools of province
The first issue led to an intense debate since Delhi education system was linked to the Punjab, and Punjab University, preceding the 1917 reforms, Sadler Commission had initiated a debate on this issue, because the authorities were apprehensive of that in case of implementation of such a bilingual system in Delhi Province, English as a language would be downgraded to an inferior position compared to vernacular education in the Punjab. As a policy matter, Chief Commissioner C. A. Barron sought the opinion of two educationists S. Rudra, the Principal of St. Stephen’s College and G. Sanderson, inspector of Schools, Ambala Division, who suggested that there be a change in the school instruction in Delhi, and vernaculars in secondary schools be given synchronise importance with the English language. The learning of English must be continued and be given equal importance. 17
In 1916 the second issue became significant when the Government of India proposed a draft resolution on the appropriateness of moral and religious education in schools in Delhi. In Delhi, St. Stephen’s High School and College had made it mandatory religious classes for its students. Hindus and Muslim students of the school and college attended classes on compulsory tenets, but no objection had been raised by either Hindu or Muslim parents. Other institutions like Ramjas and Hindu foundations which contained primary, high and college classes had their own denominational religious classes. It was unusual to Delhi that there was a commonality in attending school by various communities. Failing these, they would attend government schools or mission schools, though there was compulsory religious teaching in the latter. Muslims were never attracted by purely Hindu institutions or Arya Samaj schools, though in such institutions religious teaching was by implication rather than by direct teaching. Hindus would attend good schools of their own community and, failing these, government or mission institutions. The more liberal Hindus sent their wards to Arya Samaj institutions and avoided Muslim institutions. So, in Delhi, government and mission schools where compulsory religious education was taught, had Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Arya Samaji students. The other denominational schools though without direct compulsory religious education could not compete with this universality of appeal. 18
Thus, the different agencies tried to raise both the number of institutions as well as quality of overall education in general and women’s education in particular in the Delhi province. The changed political and administrative circumstances of the province of Delhi when it became the capital meant that its educational needs too underwent drastic changes. It is in these changed circumstances that philanthropists, missionaries and government agencies tried to bring about change in the educational structure of Delhi.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.