Food Acquisition and Consumption Issues of South Asian Countries: A Systematic Literature Review and Future Research Agenda

The Industry-related Food Processing Strategies: Food Security Issues

It is essential for human beings to consume wholesome food in adequate quantities in order to sustain their lives (Cheung et al., 2021). The consumption of contaminated food contributes significantly to the spread of food-borne illnesses worldwide, which are a significant health problem and economic problem (Cheung et al., 2021; Esham et al., 2018; Weerasekara et al., 2018). These countries are increasingly concerned about the impacts of climate change, variability and extreme weather events on food production, food security and livelihoods (Lin et al., 2022; Pahari et al., 2023). Climate change has largely been examined in relation to impacts on crop production or food availability aspects of food security, with little attention paid to other key dimensions, such as food access and food utilization (Esham et al., 2018; Lin et al., 2022).

For example, in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the agriculture sector plays a vital role in its economy with a significant contribution towards GDP after the apparel sector (Bairagi et al., 2021; Mutiara & Arai, 2017; Retamal, 2019). A key objective of the national development agenda is to ensure food security. Eight hundred million people in the emerging world (especially in developing countries) currently face food insecurity, and the issue of food and nutrition needs is significantly becoming a greater need (Daniel et al., 2015; Mwaura, 2022; Pradhan et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2022) with South Asian countries becoming one main entity.

With the expansion of the food industry, urbanization, increased trade in fresh and processed foods, and growing consumption of foods of animal origin, Sri Lankans and Indians are becoming increasingly concerned about food safety issues (Irfan & Wang, 2019; Kandeepan et al., 2016). Both domestically and internationally, food safety risk management is important for the protection of public health and the development of markets. According to Kandeepan et al. (2016), food insecurity is a significant factor influencing undernutrition and anaemia among children in the Jaffna district of Sri Lanka. Among adolescents, Talagala and Arambepola (2016) investigated the use of food labels in choosing packaged snacks and its associated factors. In addition, the use of food labels is unsatisfactory among adolescents, and this practice should be introduced through school canteens. In addition, the household chorus is primarily performed by women in Sri Lanka. As a result, it is essential to empower rural women regarding household food security (Dominguez-Whitehead, 2015; Shaw et al., 2023; Voidarou et al., 2020). Further, as per the findings by Aziz et al. (2020), legal rights, ICTs, social support and family rights can be significant pathways of improving food security for women. As women have more bargaining power over resource allocation, they could choose better foods and pay more for them. Due to limited mobility and fewer economic opportunities, women are unable to increase their food requirements for themselves.

Sri Lanka’s National Climate Change Policy, which was adopted in 2022, clearly endorses the need to implement appropriate adaptation strategies in order to reduce the impacts of climate change on crop and animal production in order to ensure national food security for the country (Esham et al., 2018; Irfan & Wang, 2019;Voidarou et al., 2020). Even though some strategies and actions have already been implemented in order to address some of the emerging negative impacts of climate change, there is still room for new entry points for adaptation to reduce the vulnerability of the Sri Lankan the agricultural sector to climate change while simultaneously increasing the resilience of the entire community. The development of seasonal climate forecasts is one example of this type of action which could be used to assist farmers, businesses across the value chain and policy makers to develop improved climate risk management strategies in order to protect food security in the future.

The Industry-related Food Processing Strategies: Food Quality Standard Issues

In the last decade, fresh and processed fish, fishery products, vegetables, fruits and cereals have experienced considerable growth (Kalansooriya & Chandrakumara, 2016; Pahari et al., 2023; Voidarou et al., 2020). Fresh and processed fish and fishery products export processors are maintaining higher levels of quality and safety in compliance with EU regulations. Public health faces food safety challenges (Aziz et al., 2020; Banik et al., 2020; Sirasa et al., 2020). In the domestic market, food-borne illnesses are increasing, but many remain unreported and public awareness of food safety and risk management procedures is low (Pushparajah & Sinniah, 2018). One major contemporary issue in terms of the beverage industry is the high consumption of bottled water (Marcussen et al., 2013). Plastic is often found in these bottled waters. Sri Lankan manufacturers’ compliance with bottled water rules and guidelines is questionable, even though new brands of bottled water are constantly introduced. Relevant authorities should closely monitor the bottling industry in Sri Lanka to ensure that consumers receive safe bottled drinking water.

When considering the quality levels of Barley malts, it had relatively high diastatic powers and liquefying powers. Using indigenous yeasts for industrial fermentation processes has been shown to be beneficial by Chandrasena et al. (2006). Sri Lankan alcohol distilleries that use sugarcane molasses suffer from low fermentation efficiencies due to inferior yeast cultures (Chandrasena et al., 2006). According to Pushparajah and Sinniah (2018), Sugar graze and umbo should maintain more quality levels. These findings further indicate the need for maintenance of more quality standards in the ‘Food and Beverage industry’ of Sri Lanka. Similarly, this can be seen in Bangladesh as, despite the increase in income, food quality is poor. Land ownership and income distribution are unequal. The utilization of food has improved, but balanced food intake remains low (Roy et al., 2019).

Since climate change, variability and extreme weather conditions are exerting increasing stress on local food systems, the purpose of this article is to provide a better understanding of how climate change impacts the food system and food security (Ruszczyk et al., 2021). Food security and climate change have mostly been explored in relation to crop productivity or food availability, with little focus on other key dimensions, such as food access and food utilization when considering India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Esham et al., 2018; Weerasekara et al., 2018).

Household Consumption Patterns: Food Nutrition Issues

At present, Sri Lanka is experiencing the worst economic crisis it has ever faced since it became an independent nation in 1948. In the present situation, the country is not able to pay the import bills for food, fuel, gas and other essential commodities that are necessary for the day-to-day living of citizens, and repaying the massive foreign debts is a distant dream that will never come true (Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021). Food prices have been steadily rising since the last quarter of 2021, reaching a record high in August 2022, with the year-on-year food inflation rate at nearly 94%, further limiting the purchasing power of the average household. Food prices have been on an upward trend since the last quarter of 2021. From 1942 to 1979, the government of Sri Lanka introduced open economic policies and a food stamp programme, both of which increased the availability and accessibility of energy and protein among the most vulnerable people in the country (Biswas et al., 2023; Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021). These people include pregnant mothers and preschool children. As well as the policies that Sri Lanka is implementing in the present era, the past policies have had some positive effects on the level of food prices in the country.

According to Townsend et al. (2017), a recent study conducted in two rural districts of Sri Lanka found that barriers to healthy dietary choices among secondary school students occur at many levels, supporting the use of multifactorial programmes to make healthy eating easier for them. Therefore, it has been identified that the food nutrition issue is a major threat to the development of the youth in Sri Lanka as a result. This is similar to Pakistan as Irfan and Wang (2019) conducted a study to examine the impact of data-driven capabilities on supply chain integration (SCI) and competitive performance of firms in the food and beverage (F&B) industry. Data-driven capabilities (i.e., flexible information technology resources and data assimilation) are significantly mediated by SCI (i.e., internal integration and external integration). These also affect competitive performance indirectly through external integration (Irfan & Wang, 2019; Kashif et al., 2022; Rana et al., 2022).

Household Consumption Patterns: Organic Food Consumption Patterns

Using food disappearance data published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, Wijesekere (2015) examined the patterns of food consumption in Sri Lanka from 1985 to 2009. Further, this study found that grain products were the main source of calories and protein, while non-grain vegetable products and animal products provided most of the fat and calories. Sri Lankans consumed fewer calories from protein than recommended. During the period studied, there has been a shift away from roots and tubers, fruits and cereals in favour of sugars, pulses, oils and animal products (Mandal et al., 2021; Shetu, 2022; Zabir et al., 2020). There was a relatively low contribution from animal products, less than 8%. There is a need to increase awareness of the health benefits of organic foods among the general public in order to increase their consumption patterns.

For example, green tea lowers cholesterol levels. Tea, mostly black tea, is the second most consumed drink in the world after water, coffee, beer, wine and carbonated soft drinks and ‘tea wine’ can be identified as an alternative to tea drinks (Manisha et al., 2019). Mutiara and Arai (2017) identified that, due to certification labelling, organic farmers have difficulty selling their products for a good price. To receive an organic label certification requires high costs, leading to high selling prices for organic products (Mutiara & Arai, 2017). Microbiology of fermented foods with a special focus on specific products that illustrate the diversity that can result from fermentation (Voidarou et al., 2020). Modern challenges include fermented foods designed for people with special dietary needs, such as Crohn’s disease patients. The safety of artisan fermented products is also a major challenge, one that molecular biology may be able to address. Both pathogens and food-borne microbial resistance are concerns (Voidarou et al., 2020).

Similarly, Weerasiri and Cooray (2016) found that marketing mix and pre-purchase–related factors have a clear positive relationship with the customer purchasing intention of organic foods. Approximately 70% of Sri Lanka’s agricultural sector is devoted to smallholdings and a combination of crops and meat production. Approximately 1.2% of Sri Lanka’s national GDP is attributed to the livestock sector, according to the Department of Census and Statistics in 2014. In 2014, the country had 16.6 million chickens, 1.1 million cattle and 0.3 million buffaloes as its main livestock species, followed by swine (0.1 million), goats/sheep (0.3 million) and ducks (0.01 million). Further, it was found that the Sri Lankan meat industry could develop more due to several reasons, such as improving market balance, technical leadership for livestock development and declining raw materials costs (Alahakoon et al., 2016) while the government should pay more attention to improve the meat industry of Sri Lanka.

Household Consumption Patterns: The Dietary Diversity and Food Intake Issues

Sirasa et al. (2020) explored the dietary diversity and food intake of urban living Sri Lankan preschool children and suggested the need for population-based interventions to promote healthier dietary habits. It is also found that most people are unaware of food patterns which can reduce weight-loss and more healthy dietary options such as green tea and ginger (Jayawardena et al., 2020). Basically, the dietary diversity and food intake issues happen due to a lack of knowledge about the sicknesses and symptoms of such illnesses as heart attacks and diabetes. Further, Weerasekara et al. (2018) discussed factors that have underpinned the dietary change in Sri Lanka from its early colonization to the post-colonization period. This study examined literature and conducted several interviews with field experts and senior people in marginal areas and also examined the Sri Lankan traditional food system and how it changed after the colonial period, including the main changes and their impact on current micronutrient deficiencies and non-communicable diseases. Affluence, education, employment, household size, rice fragrance, per capita rice consumption and frequency of purchase drive packaged rice demand (Bairagi et al., 2021).

In a study which explored the association of diet diversity with obesity in adults, it was identified that dietary diversity and variety are the main elements of a high-quality diet. Moreover, adequate dietary practices provide more nutrition for adults, leading to a healthier lifestyle (Rana & Sharma, 2016). For Sri Lankan and Indian adults, it was identified that they had a relatively low dietary diversity value, although people consume several types of food items, the amount of consumption is low for many food groups. Malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies were identified as higher in the estate sector where most Indian Tamils are living, including their children (Khan et al., 2022; Rana 2020). Further, people with higher education levels and higher occupation levels had a greater purchasing power which led to a higher consumption of different food varieties. Lower maternal education or lack of knowledge among pregnant women about nutrition levels was also found as a major factor which causes malnutrition among children (Bairagi et al., 2021; Wijesekere, 2015). Further, it was identified that Sri Lankans consume an excess amount of starchy foods which leads to dietary diversity and variety with obesity among Sri Lankan adults.

Future Research Suggestions Based on the Key Constructs

Prioritize the quality audits to enhance food safety: The food industry uses food safety and quality audits for a variety of reasons (to evaluate management systems, obtain certifications to certain standards, assess the condition of premises and products, confirm legal compliance, etc.) (Chandrasena et al., 2006). As a result of recent food scandals, consumers have become increasingly interested in food safety and quality, leading the public and private food sectors to develop a variety of food safety and quality standards (Alahakoon et al., 2016; Bairagi et al., 2021; Wijesekere, 2015). It is especially important to conduct research ethically when working with vulnerable populations and senior citizens (Banik et al., 2020; Shetu, 2022; Townsend et al., 2017). The costs, prices and profits of firms are influenced by food safety and quality assurance systems, but specific impacts vary depending on the characteristics and activities of the firms (Weerasiri & Cooray, 2016), which is another area for future researchers. As a consequence, the relative importance of different incentives varies in the decisions of individual firms regarding food safety and quality (Weerasiri & Cooray, 2016).

Imbalance in the diet could lead to an increased risk of obesity and other health problems (Manisha et al., 2019; Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021; Zabir et al., 2020). Further, there are no studies on food consumption based on the oil intake (Alahakoon et al., 2016; Manisha et al., 2019; Wijesekere, 2015). Unlike the Western countries, in Asia, most of the dishes include coconut or olive oil to prepare dishes (Chandrasena et al., 2006; Wijesekere, 2015). The consumption levels of oil intake are still an under-researched area (Townsend et al., 2017; Weerasiri & Cooray, 2016). According to the review, obesity and overweight among children and adolescents are on the rise in South Asia. According to other recent reviews (Esham et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2020; Weerasekara et al., 2018), the obesity epidemic is affecting significantly.

Furthermore, the review identifies many factors contributing to obesity and overweight among children and adolescents in the region, which is consistent with findings from other developing countries. Children’s obesity is largely a result of a lack of physical activity (Esham et al., 2018; Rahman & Hossain, 2023; Tiwari et al., 2020; Weerasekara et al., 2018). At present, Sri Lanka is experiencing a very severe economic crisis and no study compared the deviations in food consumption patterns that leads to child obesity by considering post-crisis and pre-crisis situations. Furthermore, the use of food labels by adolescents is unsatisfactory despite good knowledge and positive attitudes (Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021; Talagala & Arambepola, 2016; Zabir et al., 2020). Sri Lanka’s ‘School canteen policy’ should address the skills required to read labels by incorporating various communication strategies which is worth exploring by future researchers (Talagala & Arambepola, 2016).

Future Research Suggestions Based on the Context

Fish and meat industry: The consumption of meat and meat products has shown an upward trend in Sri Lanka and India during the last decade and is anticipated to increase further in the future (Alahakoon et al., 2016; Mandal et al., 2021; Shetu, 2022). Researching the relationship between firm characteristics and the adoption of food safety and quality assurance systems in the fish and meat sector provides valuable information for policymakers (Weerasiri & Cooray, 2016). In the design of regulatory requirements and enforcement mechanisms, it is rare for food processors to consider different incentives for adopting hazard analysis and critical control point and good manufacturing practices (Mandal et al., 2021; Tiwari et al., 2020). Meanwhile, incentive-based approaches require regulators to determine and apply control programmes for each firm individually in accordance with its production activities and technology (Irfan and Wang, 2019; Kashif et al., 2023). As a result of this mammoth undertaking, regulators must prioritize and guide their efforts based on knowledge about the relationships between firm characteristics and the likelihood of adopting particular food safety and quality assurance systems in the fish and meat sector.

Organic food consumption patterns were identified among consumers in three urban areas of Sri Lanka. According to this study, organic food consumption is associated with total knowledge, consumer perception, consumer motivation, product-related factors, health consciousness, environmental consciousness, number of household members and monthly income (Kandeepan et al., 2016). Additionally, many factors contribute to the purchase of organic foods, including environmental concerns, health concerns, safety concerns, product quality concerns and a sense of trust which has not been explored or measured in a detailed manner by previous scholars (Esham et al., 2018; Weerasekara et al., 2018). However, trust, price, accessibility, assortment, shelf life, taste and lack of time are the main factors that limit the consumption of organic foods in the study area.

Future Research Suggestions Based on the Methodology

Employ longitudinal designs: The psychological factors associated with food consumptions patterns among adolescents and senior citizens are under-researched due to several reasons (Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021; Townsend et al., 2017; Zabir et al., 2020). Recent studies by Rana et al. (2022, 2023) highlighted various parameters of writing literature review papers such as need, rigour, depth, relevance and utilization. As a result of changes in context, development and maturation and variations in protective factors such as social support, family and community acceptance, educational access, vocational training opportunities and employment opportunities, psychosocial adjustments among adolescents and senior citizens and mental health are likely to fluctuate significantly which influence the food consumption patterns over time. The distribution of adipose tissue in the abdomen is a well-established risk factor for cardiometabolic diseases. An increase in dietary energy density (ED) and psychological distress may contribute to abdominal obesity (Kandeepan et al., 2016; Sirasa et al., 2020). It is necessary to conduct prospective studies in order to determine whether dietary ED mediates the relationship between psychological factors and cardiometabolic disease risk (Roy et al., 2019; Ruszczyk et al., 2021). It may be that a measure of chronic stress does not adequately capture the kind of stress that influences eating behaviours and the intake of high energy-dense diets. Further studies may be needed to measure more specific types of stress, such as work-related stress, and to understand how the intensity and duration of stress affect eating behaviours and dietary intake.