The Impact of LMX and Job Stress on Service Quality of Police Personnel Through the Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction and Moderating Role of Social Support

Abstract

This study examines how leader–member exchange (LMX) and job stress affect the calibre of service provided by police personnel, considering the mediating effects of job satisfaction and the moderating effects of social support. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse data from 1,273 people from North India and 552 police personnel. According to the findings, job satisfaction acts as a buffer between job stress and the good effects of LMX on service quality. Particularly at moderate and higher levels, social support reduces the mediation effect of job satisfaction between LMX and service quality as well as between job stress and service quality. This study offers insights to improve service quality for Indian police personnel through the presentation of a comprehensive framework that tackles job stress, job satisfaction, LMX and social support.

Keywords

LMX job stress job satisfaction social support service quality police

Introduction

Like other countries around the globe, the police department in India is the government body, which has been given responsibility to provide protection and maintaining law and order in general public. It has shown its strength and resilience from time to time in performing its duties. There are around 2.6 million police personnel working in India (BPR&D, 2022) and still there is tremendous pressure in performing their duties because of ever-increasing population. Since, India is set to become the youngest country in terms of average age of population around 2029 (Bisaria, 2017; Kulkarni & Mohapatra, 2021), the police have to deal with new and new types of problems every day. Since public interests and rights are involved when police perform its duties, it is only with ‘public-oriented and service-based’ approach that police can claim trust from the public. Service quality is crucial for policing (Ekaabi et al., 2020) in India; such level of quality can be achieved though practices like balanced scorecards, process mapping (Greasley, 2004), business process re-engineering (Coulson-Thomas, 1995; MacIntosh, 2003), self-assessment processes (McFarlane, 2001) and quality management (Berman & West, 1995). In addition, a conducive work environment is more significant than aforesaid practices (Yadav et al., 2019). The present study focuses on assessing the various enablers that foster service quality of Indian police personnel.

The relationship between police service quality and stress among police personnel has been sparingly addressed in existing literature. Besagas and Branzuela (2023) established that the quality of work–life serves as a partial mediator in the link between occupational stress and work–life balance. Selokar et al. (2011) pinpointed criticism from superiors, an overload of work and the undervaluing of abilities as major stress inducers in police personnel. Additionally, Violanti and Aron (1995) underline that organizational factors, shift work and lack of departmental support are significant stress contributors for police personnel. Moreover, Bishopp et al. (2016) found that organizational stress not only affects police misconduct but also that anger plays a crucial role in this dynamic. Finally, studies show a significant connection between stress in police personnel and health issues, such as poor sleep quality (Neylan et al., 2002) and heightened levels of anxiety, depression and stress, particularly among retired officers.

According to the Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D), India (Gadpayle, 2015), police personnel

face severe to mild fatigue due to erratic duty hours, extended shift duties, sudden onset of emergency, lack of proper/good sleep, poor and untimely food, not being able to meet families even after duty hours, behaviour of their superiors, smoking, alcohol intake, unavailability of basic facilities or no time to even bathe’ (p. 53).

The mental and physical stress led to police personnel’s reduced temper, poor judgment, ineffective interpersonal communication, poor hand to eye coordination, visual perception and concentration, slow reaction timing and reduced vigilance. In this view, job stress hampers the quality of their service (Gadpayle, 2015). As per Gadpayle (2015), 91.79% of police personnel in India are stressed and fatigued. Hall et al. (2010) considered the police profession as one of the most highly stressed occupation. Another important aspect of police life is the relationship with their senior officers. One of the sources of stress is behaviour of higher officers, which contributes 10.89% to the stress levels of police personnel (Gadpayle, 2015).

The law enforcement setting is characterized by unique stressors, including the necessity to confront dangerous situations, high levels of responsibility and dealing with societal issues on the frontline. These factors, along with the quasi-military structure of police organizations, create distinct challenges for police officers compared to other professions (Shernock, 1998). Police officers experience specific occupational stressors, and the level of social support they receive, including supervisory support, significantly influences their psychological strain. Supervisors tend to experience less stress and more social support compared to other ranks. Social support, including supervisory and family support, is crucial in helping officers cope with the stresses of their work (Cullen et al., 1985). High-quality leader–member exchange (LMX) relationships in the police force create a more resourceful work environment, facilitating work engagement and job performance (Breevaart et al., 2015). High-LMX supervisors and mentors can significantly reduce emotional exhaustion in officers, thereby minimizing the risk of burnout (Thomas & Lankau, 2009).

Job satisfaction emerges as a pivotal element of service quality within the policy domain. The establishment of contented customers fundamentally revolves around the contentment of employees (Malhotra & Mukherjee, 2004). Consequently, the current investigation centres on the precursors of job satisfaction, namely LMX and job stress, along with its outcome, which is service quality. This study positions job satisfaction as an intermediary between these antecedents and consequences. Another important variable in police personnel’s life is social support, which has been discussed as one of the tools to deal with job stress, dissatisfaction or low morale in employees (Beehr et al., 1990). Social support significantly predicts job satisfaction and turnover intension in police personnel (Brough & Frame, 2004). It takes more than just police personnel to being out their best at the job. Police personnel require support of their friends, colleagues and family members from time to time to relieve his/her duties in best possible manner in tough environments. Therefore, the study further aims to test the effect of social support as moderator of positive effect of job satisfaction on service quality in police personnel.

Although, some studies have been conducted on Indian police personnel but they have majorly neglected the human aspects and working conditions involved in improving police department’s working. The present study aims to bring the attention of the authorities and also the general public about the realities of police department and what can be done to further improve the situation. The study is novel in nature because it studies various individual-level as well as institutional-level variables, which help in improving the service quality of police personnel. Job satisfaction, which has been focused as consequence in most of the police-related studies, is treated as mediator and social support from various stakeholders has been taken as moderator to gauge service quality of police personnel. The flow of the study is as follows: Initially, a thorough literature review is done to develop conceptual framework and to design the research hypothesis. Later on, data of 552 police personnel and 1,273 general public dealt with by police personnel have been collected to test the framework with the help of statistical tools, followed by data analysis, discussion implications and future scope.

Literature Review

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction, often defined as the extent to which individuals find contentment and fulfilment in their work roles, holds significant implications for various organizational outcomes. Spector (2002) identifies two distinct orientations towards work: individuals who regard their jobs as central to their lives and derive a sense of appreciation from their roles, and those who view their jobs as mere routines to be completed. Lee and Moon (2011) underscore that job satisfaction represents a composite of employees’ attitudes and perceptions towards their occupations.

Locke (1976) characterizes job satisfaction as a ‘pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences’ (p. 1304). Developing upon this foundation, contemporary perspectives offered by scholars conceptualize job satisfaction as an attitude encompassing affective components, such as moods and emotions, as well as cognitive components that involve beliefs, judgments and comparisons (Fisher, 2000; Weiss, 2000). This multidimensional understanding aligns with Eagly and Chaiken’s (1993) portrayal of attitudes.

In the context of law enforcement, job satisfaction among police personnel is influenced by an array of factors. Lambrou et al. (2010) identify several components—ranging from job stress and workload to compensation and the overall work environment—that collectively shape the job satisfaction experienced by police personnel. The role of organizational policies in affecting job satisfaction is noteworthy, as highlighted by Ghoniem et al. (2011), who point to instances where policies contribute to employee discontent.

Moreover, job satisfaction bears consequential effects on police personnel’s performance, commitment and interactions. Extensive research underscores its influence on job-related outcomes, including turnover rates and interrelationships within the police force (Lee & Moon, 2011; Nalla & Kang, 2012; Yang et al., 2012). Notably, contented officers exhibit heightened adaptability to change and a greater propensity to support policing strategies (Pelfrey, 2007).

Although scholarship and practitioner interest in police job satisfaction has gained momentum since the 1990s, a comprehensive understanding of its origins remains somewhat limited. While studies have explored the influence of various job-related factors (Ercikti, 2008; Nalla & Kang, 2012), a gap persists in comprehensively examining the sources of police personnel’s job satisfaction (Buker & Dolu, 2010; Decker, 2018; Lambert et al., 2018). Thus, this study endeavours to contribute to the extant literature by delving into the intricacies of police personnel’s job satisfaction, offering insights that enrich our understanding of police administration dynamics.

Leader–Member Exchange and Job Satisfaction

LMX as a concept was first introduced by Graen and his colleagues. In a normal course of working, leader develops varied kind of relations with his/her subordinate. Followers with high LMX usually have higher chances of earning favourable treatment over others from leader in form of support, freedom in decision-making, more growth opportunities (Graen & Cashman, 1975; Graen & Schiemann, 1978). Concept of LMX helps in understanding this dyadic relation between leader and follower. Employees and supervisor relationship is critical for prosperity and execution at work (Gerstner & Day, 1997). The LMX theory states that each member creates a special social exchange with his or her supervisor, and the quality of this LMX relationship has been positively correlated with employees’ job performance (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Srivastava & Dhar, 2016). LMX studies suggest that managers have exceptional connections with each of their employees, relationships that are characterized by regard, trust and mutual commitment (Dansereau et al., 1973; Graen & Schiemann, 1978; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Srivastava & Dhar, 2016). Maintaining a connection of the highest calibre has several benefits.

Among numerous other work-related results, for example, better occupation execution, high commitment, better member improvement and career mentoring (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Liden et al., 1997), studies on LMX theory have indicated positive relationship among LMX and job satisfaction (Golden & Veiga, 2008; Stewart & Wiener, 2021). We believe that police personnel will also experience this. Therefore, the current study suggests that LMX will increase police officials’ job satisfaction.

H ₁: LMX positively impacts job satisfaction of police personnel.

Job Stress and Job Satisfaction

The term ‘stress’ is frequently used to portray the body’s reactions to demands put upon it, whether these demands are positive or negative.

Stress is a condition which happens when one realizes the pressure on them or requirements of situation are wider than they can handle and if these requirements are huge and continue for a long period of time without any interval; mental, physical or behavioural problems may occur.’ (Mansoor et al., 2011, p. 1)

Job stress has standout among the most critical workplace health problems in both developing and developed nations (Danna & Griffin, 1999; Spector, 2002). There are various working environment variables called work stressors that make job unpleasant and troublesome for number of employees in all kinds of work settings. Extra stressors concern interpersonal relationships at work, for example, conflicts with the behaviour of supervisors, colleagues, subordinates and with management policies (Spector, 2002). In work life, employees find job stress to be so unpleasant in everyday life that they make an effort to avoid it by withdrawing either physically (frequent tardiness, laziness, absenteeism, etc) or mentally (lack of engagement or absence from inclusion in the employment, etc) or by leaving the job altogether (Beehr & Newman, 1978).

Job stress and job satisfaction are relevant domains to be studied in Human Resource Management (HRM) research and varied research works have indicated to identify the relation amidst stress and job satisfaction. Stamps and Piedmonte (1986) found a direct relationship between job satisfaction and job stress. Another study by general practitioners of England identified four job stressors that were leading to job dissatisfaction (Cooper et al., 1989). Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) expressed that organizational factor, for example, working conditions and workload, were negatively related to employee job satisfaction. Fletcher and Payne (1980) recognized that even the absence of satisfaction can be a source of stress while high job satisfaction can reduce the impacts of stress. Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993) demonstrated that abnormal amounts of work stress are connected with low levels of job satisfaction. Additionally, Chung and Kowalski (2012) have uncovered that job satisfaction is essentially affected by job stress among nurses. Therefore, the present study proposes that increase in job stress will lead to reduction of job satisfaction in police personnel also.

H ₂:Job stress negatively influences job satisfaction of police personnel.

Job Satisfaction and Service Quality

Service quality in the context of police officers encompasses a range of factors, including customer satisfaction, meeting agreed requirements, excellence in performance, professionalism and pride in their work. It also involves improving productivity and operational effectiveness, which can be seen as a radical approach to quality assurance in policing (Butler, 1992). Specific aspects of a police officer’s job that contribute to service quality include their personality traits, such as agreeableness and conscientiousness, which can predict personal accomplishment and emotional resilience (Bhowmick & Mulla, 2020). The quality of their sleep, affected by routine stressors, also plays a significant role in their overall service delivery. Moreover, the concept of balancing ‘care and control’ is seen as equally important by senior police officers, reflecting the need to balance efficacy and legitimacy in their approach to policing. The quality of police service also depends on the organization’s ability to collect, analyse and disseminate relevant data effectively, which influences their capacity to respond to various situations (O’Shea & Nicholls, 2003).

The significance of delivering quality service cannot be overstated in its impact on customer satisfaction (Kim, 2020), repeat sales (Schneider & Bowen, 1995), fostering customer loyalty (Murali et al., 2016) and customer retention (Naini et al., 2022). Moreover, it directly shapes an organization’s market share and ultimately influences profitability (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Given the distinctive attributes of services, service quality takes precedence over product quality, where specialized aspects of service excellence come to the forefront. Unlike products, the distinction between the quality of service and the quality of the service provider is not as easily discerned (Lewis, 1989), rendering the assessment of service quality a complex endeavour.

Empirical evidence substantiates the notion that satisfied employees contribute to satisfied customers (Hussinki et al., 2019). Within service-oriented entities, human resource factors, notably job satisfaction, serve as catalysts for fostering customer-centric behaviours (Hoffman & Ingram, 1992). Individuals who harbour positive dispositions tend to exhibit altruism, helpfulness and considerateness (Motowidlo, 1984). Conversely, dissatisfied customer-contact employees find it challenging to deliver exemplary service that meets clients’ expectations (Kurdi et al., 2020). The extent of satisfaction experienced by internal customers resonates outward, impacting customer satisfaction and retention (Lee et al., 2020).

The interconnectedness amid internal and external customers has been encapsulated within the ‘service-profit chain’ model formulated by Heskett et al. (1994, 1997). This model intertwines job satisfaction and employee loyalty with consumer loyalty and satisfaction, thereby influencing the organization’s growth and profitability. Schlesinger and Heskett (1991) complement this model with their concept of the ‘cycle of failure’, revealing a sequence wherein staff dissatisfaction triggers high turnover, leading to inadequate training and rewards, ultimately culminating in subpar customer service.

Zeithaml et al. (1990) assert that employees unsuited for their roles will inevitably fall short in delivering quality service. Boshoff and Tait (1996) support this notion, emphasizing that job satisfaction—distinct from Zeithaml et al.’s (1990) notion of ‘employee-job fit’—holds pivotal importance in shaping service quality. A satisfied workforce is more likely to align effectively with their responsibilities. Indeed, job satisfaction has been consistently identified as a precursor to customer-oriented behaviours (Hoffman & Ingram, 1992). Building on this understanding, Min Chen et al. (2014) establish a correlation between police personnel’s satisfaction and elevated service quality, mediated through effective policing management. Thus, the present study posits:

H ₃: Job satisfaction positively influences service quality among police personnel.

Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction

The extent to which an employee senses job satisfaction is associated to the passionate state he/she is in the work setting. It gets endorsed by good impression about job characteristics in the work settings. Favourable assessments of the resources provided by the organization to its employees create positive emotions emerging from high level of job satisfaction. As studied by Eagly and Chaiken (1993) and Rich et al. (2010), employees with positive emotions have higher chances to be eager in taking part in practices directed fundamentally by the job related tasks which adds to organizational effectiveness. The positive relation between job satisfaction and work performance has been affirmed in various studies related to organizational behaviour, HRM, social psychology, etc (Janssen, 2001; Ostroff, 1992; Silvestro & Cross, 2000). In a service setting, empowerment encourages a situation showing adaptability, flexibility and prudence to propel employees to perform assignments for service delivery. Thus, empowered employees perceive and assess the job setting positively; this prompts to higher job satisfaction with respect to the employees. As indicated by Situational Leadership Theory, when leaders guarantee positive working conditions for engaging them, the latter are more satisfied with their jobs. Consequently, satisfied workers put additional effort to provide contentment to meet varied customer solicitations, so service quality gets improved. The present study proposes and tests that LMX positively influences service quality of police personnel through job satisfaction as a mediator.

H ₄: Job satisfaction acts as a mediator between LMX and service quality of police personnel.

Job stress has been negatively associated with employee service performance (the most critical element of service quality) by only few studies (Hon, 2013; Jones et al., 2007) but there is hardly any study to focus on direct influence of job stress on service quality. Majority studies pointed the inverse impact of job stress impacts job satisfaction (Chung & Kowalski, 2012; Hoboubi et al., 2017) and job satisfaction impacts service quality positively (Gazzoli et al., 2010; Karatepe et al., 2004). This suggests that negative effect of job stress on service quality can be mediated by job satisfaction. The present study is targeted to check the adverse effect of job stress on service quality of police personnel through job satisfaction as a mediator.

H ₅: Job satisfaction acts as a mediator between job stress and service quality of police personnel.

Moderating the Role of Social Support

Etzion (1984) characterized social support as informal social network that gives people articulations of passionate concern or sympathy, down to earth help, informational support or evaluation (i.e., different types of social support). Workplace social support concentrates on collaborative problem solving, critical thinking and sharing data, reappraising circumstances and getting guidance from a variety of staff, for example, colleagues, supervisors and managers. This idea of social support has come into light through the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) which acted as bases of organizational theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986). According to scholars, in the absence of social support, employee’s commitment level reduces, and the fear of exploitation increases (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Lynch et al., 1999). Also, the lack of social support leads to reduction in felt obligation towards organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Moreover, increased social support motives employees to work efficiently (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003).

Police personnel’s wellbeing is significantly influenced by the level of social support they receive from various sources, including colleagues, family and friends. They often experience supportive interactions, and social constraints can sometimes hinder these exchanges. Stephens et al. (1997) found that lower levels of support from peers and supervisors in police departments are linked to higher PTSD scores, highlighting the importance of a supportive work environment. Additionally, Kirmeyer and Dougherty (1988) observed that high social support enhances coping mechanisms and reduces tension–anxiety, especially under high perceived workload. Further emphasizing the role of support, Morris et al. (1999) identified it as a key factor in predicting organizational commitment in police departments. In the context of police veterans, peer support is vital during their transition to civilian life, offering a sense of community and hope. Finally, Zavala and Kurtz (2016) found that support from family, friends and the department significantly decreased the likelihood of problematic alcohol consumption among police officers.

The intervening role of social support in our study claims that social support moderates mediation by job satisfaction of LMX–service quality relationship and of job stress–service quality relationship as well. We propose that social support mitigates the impact of low job satisfaction on service quality. In other words, even though police personnel may not be satisfied with the job, still in the presence of supportive environment from their co-workers and supervisors, they can openly discuss positive and negative aspects of the job, other work and non-work related issues. As a result, positive feelings and happiness generated help in doing good to others which also includes the general public. While performing the duty or dealing with the general public, police personnel will be better off with social support although job satisfaction may be low. If a police officer is experiencing high job satisfaction, social support will further boost the motivation and zeal to deliver quality service to the public. Although, studies have acknowledged the effect of social support on job satisfaction (Babin & Boles, 1996; Brough & Frame, 2004), the role of social support to moderate the impact of job satisfaction has not been studied till date. In addition, past literature demonstrates that relationships among employees and social support have an effect on a level of customer service (Roberts et al., 2003). Importantly, social support has been shown to mitigate job stress levels of employees (Wolff et al., 2016). Further, supervisor support reduces role stress and enhances job satisfaction of retail employees (Babin & Boles, 1996). Also, the extant literature has further pointed out that social support acts as strong moderator to strengthen the relationship between stress and outcomes (Jolly et al., 2021). Grounded on the above rationale, we propose that social support moderates the positive influence of job satisfaction on service quality in police personnel such that a higher level of social support will enhance the service quality of police personnel and vice versa. The hypothesized model can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Hypothesized Model.

H ₆: Social support moderates the positive influence of LMX on service quality via job satisfaction, such that the positive effect is stronger for police personnel experiencing high social support.

H ₇: Social support moderates the negative influence of job stress on service quality via job satisfaction, such that the negative effect will be weaker for police personnel experiencing high social support.

Research Method

Sample and Data Collection

This research study is based on the data collected from police personnel and general public who visited police station of North India for some or the other reasons. The scales were primarily in English but for collecting data, they were translated in national language, that is, Hindi and translated back to English to check the conversion quality as stated by Brislin (1970). The process of data collection was done in two phases. First, 35 police stations were approached for their participation in the study. These police stations were selected through convenience sampling. Convenience sampling is frequently employed in quantitative research as it enhances the statistical power of the sample by including subjects more readily accessible to the researcher (Suen et al., 2014). Convenience sampling is particularly useful when no frame is available for probability sampling (Emerson, 2015). It is an effective alternative when the researcher has limited resources, time and workforce, especially if the research does not aim to create generalizations for the entire population. After organizing a detailed session to explain the procedure, 30 police stations gave consent to be part of it.

Second, every Station House Officer (SHO) was given 20 employee questionnaires to be distributed to police personnel of the respective station, who deals with general public; also, three customer questionnaires per police officer were also provided to SHO. The resultant was distribution of 600 employee questionnaires. Police personnel were asked questions related to LMX, job stress, social support and job satisfaction. Officers placed their surveys in a sealed envelope and handed them over to the SHO. On the very same day, each of the police personnel was requested to distribute customer questionnaires to the first three people who came to file a complaint or to track progress of previously filed complaint. This was done to overcome selection bias. This step led to the distribution of 1,800 questionnaires to general public. General public was asked questions on the service quality of the police officer they met. The researcher was around to help and answer the queries from officers or general public. The filled in questionnaires were collected by researcher on station gates in secured envelopes. The envelopes were coded to find out the respondent and the respective police officer he/she interacted with. The researcher collected the envelopes from the SHO on the very same day. After removing incomplete questionnaires, 552 police officer questionnaires and 1,273 general public questionnaires were found fit for the study leading to the response rate of 92% and 70.7%, respectively. As we were dealing with data from police and related general public, we were able to achieve such a high response rate, which otherwise is really difficult to obtain. General public’s answers were matched with the respective officer, leading to 1,273 personnel–public dyads. The respondents’ profiles are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Respondent’s Profile.

Police Personnel’s Details (n = 552)	Frequency (s)	Percentage (%)	Details of Visiting General Public (n = 1,273)	Frequency (s)	Percentage (%)
Gender			Gender
Male	440	79.71	Male	842	66.14
Female	112	20.29	Female	431	33.85
Age (in years)			Age (in years)
Below 20	56	10.14	Below 20	189	14.84
20–29	142	25.72	20–29	325	25.53
30–39	109	19.74	30–39	387	30.40
40–49	183	33.15	40–49	310	24.35
50 and above	62	11.23	50 and above	62	4.87
Education			Occupation
Under graduate	163	29.52	Student	100	7.85
Graduate	280	50.72	Salaried employee	377	29.61
Postgraduate	109	19.74	Business owner	307	24.11
Work experience (in years)			Retired	50	3.92
Below 1	76	13.76	House wife	229	17.98
1–10	111	20.10	Others	210	16.49
11–20	131	23.73	Frequency of contact
21–30	150	27.17	Once a year	352	27.65
31 and above	84	15.21	Two times a year	243	19.08
			Three times a year	367	28.82
			Four times a year	153	12.01
			Five times a year	87	6.83
			More than five times a year	71	5.57

Measures

In the current study, established scales were used to measure the variables. LMX (α = .89) was measured by 7-item scale by Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995), for example, ‘How well does your leader understand your job problems and needs?’ Job stress (α = .836) was measured with 6-item scale by Lait and Wallace (2002), for example, ‘I feel unable to get out from under my work’. Job satisfaction (α = .76) was measured by a 5-item scale by Hackman and old man (1975). Social support (α = .92) was measured by a 12-item scale by Akhtar et al. (2010), for example, ‘I can count on my friends when things go wrong’. Perceived service quality (α = .92) by customers was measured by a 22-item scale developed by Tsaur and Lin (2004), who modified the scale from Parasuraman et al. (1988), for example, ‘Be sure to complete the service in a promised time’. The responses for all the scales mentioned above were measured on a 5-point scale with answers ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Analytical Approach

Initially, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was executed to evaluate the model fit, assessing the degree of alignment between the items and the measurement model. This analytical procedure was carried out using SPSS 20 and AMOS 20. The evaluation of fit was based on several fit indices, including the normed fit index (NFI), the goodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) and the root mean square of approximation (RMSEA). For desirable model fit, GFI, NFI and AGFI values within the range of 0.8–0.99 are considered acceptable. Moreover, an RMSEA value of 0.05 or lower indicates good model fit.

To investigate the relationships between variables, Pearson correlation analysis was employed. Additionally, to test direct and indirect effects in the hypothesized model, the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2013) was applied, facilitating the examination of mediation and moderation effects.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations and intercorrelations among the study variables. The initial step involved CFA to assess the data. The results of the CFA yielded the following outcomes: χ^² = 2,781, degrees of freedom (df) = 1264, GFI = .894, NFI = 0.91, AGFI = 0.883, and RMSEA = 0.039, indicating a favourable model fit. As illustrated in Table 3, all measures exhibited alpha (α) values exceeding 0.70, affirming their reliability. Construct reliability ranged from 0.83 (job satisfaction) to 0.96 (service quality). Item loadings for all constructs were significant (p < .001), except for one service quality item, which was subsequently excluded. These robust construct reliabilities and substantial item loadings supported the convergent validity of each measure (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Average variance extracted (AVE) estimates surpassed the requisite threshold of 0.5, and construct reliabilities exceeded their AVE respectively, thus supporting convergent validity according to Hair et al. (2010).

Table 2.

Descriptive Analysis, Correlations and Discriminant Validity.

N = 552	Mean	SD	Correlations
N = 552	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1. Leader–member exchange	3.53	0.84	0.709
2. Job stress	3.37	0.63	–0.126**	0.844
3. Job satisfaction	3.59	0.66	0.606**	–0.025**	0.709
4. Social support	3.43	0.69	–0.061**	0.496**	0.056**	0.716
5. Service quality	3.10	0.53	0.488**	–0.101**	0.468**	0.010**	0.726

Notes: ** represents p > .01 (two-tailed). The bold numbers in the end of each row are square roots of AVE.

To ascertain discriminant validity, the correlation coefficients were compare to the square root of AVE for each corresponding variable (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In Table 2, the diagonal values in bold font indicate the square root of AVE. Correlation values are shown between construct pairs in the remaining cells. The square root of AVE values surpass the correlation values, confirming discriminant validity. Discriminant validity is also upheld if AVE exceeds the values of maximum shared variance (MSV) and average shared variance (ASV), a condition fulfilled as shown in Table 3 (Hair et al., 2010).

Table 3.

Table of Convergent Validity.

Construct	Indicators	AVE	MSV	ASV	Factor Loading	CR
Leader–member exchange		0.503	0.367	0.156		0.88/0.88
	LMX1				0.78
	LMX2				0.73
	LMX3				0.67
	LMX4				0.65
	LMX5				0.77
	LMX6				0.71
	LMX7				0.65
Job stress		0.712	0.246	0.068		0.937/0.937
	JSS1				0.87
	JSS2				0.85
	JSS3				0.83
	JSS4				0.85
	JSS5				0.82
	JSS6				0.84
Job satisfaction		0.502	0.367	0.148		0.83/0.83
	JS1				0.62
	JS2				0.61
	JS3				0.72
	JS4				0.79
	JS5				0.78
Social support		0.513	0.246	0.063		0.93/0.93
	SS1				0.64
	SS2				0.63
	SS3				0.72
	SS4				0.58
	SS5				0.73
	SS6				0.80
	SS7				0.84
	SS8				0.78
	SS9				0.82
	SS10				0.68
	SS11				0.76
	SS12				0.55
Service quality		0.528	0.238	0.117		0.96/0.96
	SQ1				0.70
	SQ2				0.73
	SQ3				0.89
	SQ4				0.76
	SQ5				0.76
	SQ6				0.79
	SQ7				0.73
	SQ8				0.65
	SQ9				0.68
	SQ10				0.70
	SQ11				0.65
	SQ12				0.80
	SQ13				0.48	DL
	SQ14				0.62
	SQ15				0.75
	SQ16				0.73
	SQ17				0.67
	SQ18				0.65
	SQ19				0.78
	SQ20				0.77
	SQ21				0.80
	SQ22				0.79

Notes: CR = composite reliability; MSV = maximum shared variance; AVE = average variance extracted; ASV = average shared variance; DL = deleted variables due to factor loading <.6; ***p value < .001.

To assess data bias, the Harman’s single factor test (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986) was conducted. Results indicated that the initial factor accounted for only 20 % of the total variance, below the acceptable threshold of 50 %. Thus, the absence of significant bias in the data is evident.

Mediation Analysis

To examine the direct relationships posited in hypotheses H1 to –H3 H₁–H₃, including LMX and job satisfaction (H₁), job stress and job satisfaction (H₂), and job satisfaction and service quality (H₃), alongside investigating the mediating effects of job satisfaction on the relationships between LMX and service quality (H₄) as well as job stress and service quality (H₅), the PROCESS macro by Hayes (2013) was employed using bootstrapping method in SPSS. Specifically, Model 4 of the PROCESS macro, designed for mediation analysis, was utilized.

The findings, detailed in Tables 4 and 5, reveal significant outcomes. LMX exhibited a substantial and positive impact on job satisfaction (B = 0.29, t = 3.15, p < .001, Table 4), while job stress demonstrated a significant and negative association with job satisfaction (B = −0.27, t = −4.13, p < .001, Table 5). Furthermore, job satisfaction displayed a significant and positive influence on service quality, as indicated in both Tables 4 and 5. Consequently, the results provide support for hypotheses H₁–H₃.

When assessing H₄, the analysis revealed positive outcomes for both relationships: LMX with job satisfaction and job satisfaction with service quality. Additionally, a direct positive effect of LMX on service quality was identified (see Table 4). The bias-corrected estimate of the indirect effect of LMX on service quality proved to be significant (B = .10, 95% CI [0.09, 0.28]), further corroborated by the Sobel test demonstrating a significant indirect effect (Sobel z = 5.035, p < .001). Consequently, the mediation proposed in H₄ was substantiated.

Table 4.

Mediation Analysis Between LMX and Service Quality by Job Satisfaction.

Predictor	Total Effect
Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
LMX (X)	Service quality(Y)	0.30 (0.06)	[0.34, 0.68]	3.74***
Predictor	Direct effect
Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
LMX(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	0.29 (0.04)	[0.28, 0.57]	3.15***
Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	0.35 (0.05)	[0.19, 0.53]	2.10**
LMX(X)	Service quality(Y)	0.20 (0.07)	[0.18, 0.46]	4.35***
Predictor	Indirect Effect
Predictor	Mediator	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI
LMX(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	0.10 (0.09)	(0.09,0.28)
Predictor	Indirect Effect (Sobel Test)
Predictor	Mediator	Outcome	B(SE)	Z	p
LMX(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	0.10 (0.09)	5.035	0.000

Note: SE = standard error, B = coefficient, CI = confidence interval. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001; bootstrap sample size =5,000.

Regarding H₅, the examination of relationships showcased significant findings for both connections: job stress with job satisfaction and job satisfaction with service quality. Furthermore, a direct negative effect of job stress on service quality was identified (see Table 5). The bias-corrected estimate of the indirect effect of job stress on service quality also stood as significant (B = −0.08, 95% CI [−0.24, −0.09]). Likewise, the Sobel test underscored a significant indirect effect (Sobel z = −3.091, p < .01). Consequently, partial support for the mediation proposed in H₅ was established.

Table 5.

Mediation Analysis Between Job Stress and Service Quality by Job Satisfaction.

Predictor	Total Effect
Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
Job stress(X)	Service quality(Y)	–0.43 (0.06)	[–0.29, –0.07]	–3.64***
Predictor	Direct Effect
Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
Job stress(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	–0.27 (0.07)	[–0.50, –0.17]	–4.13***
Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	0.31 (0.06)	[0.29,0.53]	5.05***
Job stress(X)	Service quality(Y)	–0.34 (0.11)	[–0.28, –0.07]	–3.85**
Predictor	Indirect Effect
Predictor	Mediator	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI
Job stress(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	–0.08 (0.06)	[–0.24, –0.09]
Predictor	Indirect Effect (Sobel Test)
Predictor	Mediator	Outcome	B(SE)	Z	p
Job stress(X)	Job satisfaction(M)	Service quality(Y)	–0.08 (0.06)	–3.091	.001

Notes: B = coefficient, CI = confidence interval. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001; SE = standard error; bootstrap sample size = 5,000.

Moderated Mediation Analysis

Hypothesis H₆ posits that social support acted as a moderator between the mediation effect of job satisfaction between LMX and service quality, while H₇ suggests that social support moderates the mediation effect of job satisfaction between job stress and service quality. To explore these moderated mediation effects, the PROCESS macro for SPSS by Hayes (2013) was employed, utilizing Model 14 with 5,000 bootstrapped resamples.

The findings, as presented in Table 6, indicate that LMX emerges as a significant predictor of job satisfaction (B = 0.29, t = 3.15, p < .001, Model A). Furthermore, the outcomes reveal the significance of LMX, job satisfaction, social support and the interaction between job satisfaction and social support as predictors of service quality (p < .01, Model C).

Table 6.

Moderated Mediation Model with LMX as Independent Variable.

Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
Model A: Mediator variable model
LMX	Job satisfaction	0.29 (0.04)	[0.28, 0.57]	3.15***
Model B: Dependent variable model
LMX	Service quality	0.20 (0.07)	[0.18, 0.46]	4.35***
Job satisfaction	Service quality	0.35 (0.05)	[0.19, 0.53]	2.10**
Social support	Service quality	0.21 (0.06)	[0.10, 0.53]	2.31**
Job satisfaction × Social support	Service quality	0.06 (0.04)	[0.02, 0.15]	4.1***
Conditional indirect effect of LMX at different values of social support
Mediator	Social Support	Effect	Boot SE	Boot 95% CI
Job satisfaction	2.74	–0.05	0.03	[–0.11, 0.02]
	3.43	0.11	0.05	[0.06, 0.26]
	4.12	0.14	0.06	[0.11, 0.42]

Note: Values for social support are the ±1 Standard deviation from mean.

Upon examining the conditional indirect effect, it becomes apparent that job satisfaction serves as a significant mediator between LMX and service quality when the level of social support is at the mean, with a 95% confidence interval [0.06, 0.26], or one standard deviation above the mean, with a 95% confidence interval [0.11, 0.42]. However, when social support is one standard deviation below the mean, job satisfaction fails to mediate the impact of LMX on service quality, with a 95% confidence interval of [−0.11, 0.02]. Consequently, H₆ receives partial support based on these observations.

The outcomes presented in Table 7 underscore that job stress stands as a significant predictor of job satisfaction (B = −0.27, t = −4.13, p < .001, Model A). Similarly, the results reveal that job stress, job satisfaction, social support, and the interaction between job satisfaction and social support serve as significant predictors of service quality (p < .01, Model C).

Table 7.

Moderated Mediation Model with Job Stress as Independent Variable.

Predictor	Outcome	B(SE)	95% CI	t-value
Model A: Mediator variable model
Job stress	Job satisfaction	–0.27 (0.07)	[–0.50, –0.17]	–4.13***
Model B: Dependent variable model
Job stress	Service quality	–0.34 (0.11)	[–0.28, –0.07]	–3.85**
Job satisfaction	Service quality	0.31 (0.06)	[0.29, 0.53]	–5.05***
Social support	Service quality	0.25 (0.07)	[0.11, 0.50]	2.92**
Job satisfaction × Social support	Service quality	0.12 (0.06)	[0.05, 0.26]	4.80***
Conditional indirect effect of job stress at different values of social support
Mediator	Social Support	Effect	Boot SE	Boot 95% CI
Job satisfaction	2.74	–0.04	0.01	[–0.08, 0.01]
	3.43	0.09	0.04	[0.07, 0.14]
	4.12	0.12	0.05	[0.08, 0.21]

Note: Values for social support are the ±1 Standard deviation from mean.

Further analysis, through the conditional indirect effect examination, indicates that job satisfaction functions as a significant mediator between job stress and service quality when the level of social support is at the mean, reflected by a 95% confidence interval of [0.07, 0.14], or one standard deviation above the mean, with a 95% confidence interval of [0.08, 0.21]. Conversely, when social support is one standard deviation below the mean, job satisfaction does not significantly mediate the influence of job stress on service quality, as indicated by a 95% confidence interval of [−0.08, 0.01]. Consequently, H₇ garners support based on these observations.

Discussion

This research sought to investigate the associations between LMX, job stress and service quality within police personnel. Data were collected from 552 police personnel and 1,273 individuals from the general public. The contributions of this study are significant, as it employs a moderated mediation model to expand upon existing literature. The results provide backing for the direct links between LMX, job stress and service quality. Moreover, the impact of social support on the service quality of police personnel is evident through its moderating influence on the mediation effects of job satisfaction, both between LMX and service quality, and job stress and service quality.

As hypothesized, we tested job satisfaction as mediator of relationship between LMX and service quality. The mediation signified importance of job satisfaction created by LMX in improving service quality. Our findings are in confirmation with results of previous studies on police (Delattre, 1996; Kerr & Jermier, 1978; Wilson & McLaren, 1972) that leadership is important for employee performance in law enforcement environment. Leaders not only provide emotional and psychological support but also control the resources needed to perform day to day functions on the job by police personnel. The leader may take different styles from time to time to help the officers perform better. The satisfied and motivated officer respond better to rules, regulations and procedures to be followed in conducting investigations and tasks.

Findings reveal that job stress negatively influences service quality of police personnel, and job satisfaction mediates the negative relationship between job stress and service quality. Our results are in confirmation with the results of Wang et al. (2014), who found similar results on Chinese police force. Indian police force works under extreme stress created by internal and external factors. As stated in report of BPRD, India (Gadpayle, 2015), causes of stress are

because of erratic duty hours (74.25%), sudden onset of emergency (70.42%), extended shift duties (70.79%), lack of proper sleep (62.12%), poor and untimely food in-take (59.34%). Other causes were not able to meet family even after duty hours (49.5%) and living away from family (45.4%), lack of facilities at work like sleeping place, exercise ground, sanitary and health facilities (16.5%) and behaviour of higher officers (10.89%) (p. 60).

These conditions do have significant negative impact on job satisfaction as well as on service quality. Since, job satisfaction created positive attitude in police personnel to perform their duty efficiently, the negative effect of job stress has been reduced drastically from B = −0.34 to B = −0.08 by mediation of job satisfaction. The department has initiated many programmes from time to time to reduce the stress level or to improve the satisfaction level in police personnel.

Social support is found to moderate the mediation effect of job satisfaction between LMX and service quality at moderate and higher levels of social support and not at lower level of social support. It indicated the importance of quality of interaction between leader and member in creating job satisfaction in police personnel, and between police officer with friends and family during and after job in improving service quality. Being a part of in-circle or having a high-quality LMX relation, the officers get access to various resources and privileges, such as salary, advancement opportunities, decision influencing, empowerment and so on along with social–emotional experiences (Epitropaki & Martin, 2005) which positively relate to job satisfaction. As police personnel work in a dynamic environment; experience sharing has huge implications on performing risky tasks. Young officers, who have senior police personnel by their side, can learn from the experiences of theirs and will have ease in understanding and hence attaining higher job satisfaction. The support pillars on and off the job plays a crucial role in making a satisfied officer into a service-oriented officer. The results are evidence that support environment created by leaders, leading to job satisfaction added by social support by friends and family, improves the service quality of police personnel.

Social support moderates the mediation of job satisfaction between job stress and service quality at moderate and higher levels and not at lower level of social support. As already mentioned, one of the most important reason of stress and burnout in police personnel’s job is ‘not able to meet family even after duty hours (49.5%) and living away from family (45.4%)’ (Gadpayle, 2015, p. 60); social support provides much needed boost to police personnel to perform their duty. As stated by House (1981), social support is of four types—emotional, instrumental, informational and appraisal support. Informational support by friends and family help in solving problems by providing advice, recommendations, knowledge so that police personnel can do better service. Since, the work environment is really stressed and police personnel do not get to meet or give time to their family members, a supporting family and friend circle helps in keeping faith and cool in the job while dealing with the public and solving cases. Police personnel are highly underpaid in India; therefore, instrumental support by friends and well-wishers helps in reducing the extra pressure from officers, which helps in improving quality of service. The warmth, concern, respect and love given by friends and family members keep officers happy while performing duty in odd conditions. Police department should organize programmes by involving family members and friends of officers, so that they could be informed and trained to be a support system, a police officer needs from time to time.

Implications

The present study offers considerable implications for both theory and practice. From a practical perspective, policing organizations and concerned policymakers gain an understanding on how to improve the service quality of police personnel. Concurrently, findings demonstrate that if police personnel are satisfied with their jobs and have a perception of social support, it results in enhancing their service quality. Importantly, it is also proposed in this study that lower the level of stress, higher the service quality. In this view, policymakers must design interventions to combat level of stress levels among police personnel such as relaxation training programmes and meditation. In addition police department may also hire consultants to conduct workshops to impart stress management techniques. Furthermore, police superintendents must provide social support to their subordinates to enhance their well-being and creating satisfying experiences for police personnel. Therefore, high rank police personnel with managerial responsibilities must be imparted training to offer better support to their subordinates. More so, in Indian context, police organizations are marked by high degree of power-distanced culture, autocratic management style, strict rules and regulations, and long hierarchies. These work settings further increase stress levels of police personnel. Therefore, there is a pressing need to radically change the work environment of police stations in India to facilitate social interactions, open communication, social support to encourage police personnel’s involvement in providing higher service quality to public. In this line of thought, police stations may organize informal social events along with regular team building events to bolster relationship between superiors and subordinates.

From an academic perspective, this investigation brings a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge concerning job satisfaction, LMX, job stress, service quality among police personnel and the role of social support. Given the limited academic exploration pertaining to the Indian police force, this study fills a notable gap in the research landscape by extending this avenue of inquiry. By delving into the relationships among LMX, job stress and service quality within the realm of police personnel, considering the mediation effects of job satisfaction and the moderating effects of social support, this article enriches the literature on policing.

Most policing research is predominantly situated within Western contexts, with empirical exploration in the Indian context being notably scarce. Consequently, this study not only extends a validation process to concepts initially formulated within a Western framework but also offers unique insights specific to the Indian context. To date, no study has undertaken an examination of the factors influencing service quality among Indian police personnel. This research signifies a progression in this trajectory by empirically substantiating the integrated research framework. Furthermore, no prior study has undertaken the comprehensive exploration of LMX, job stress, job satisfaction and social support as they relate to the service quality experienced by Indian police personnel.

Limitations and Future Scope

As with any research endeavour, several potential limitations are worth acknowledging in this study. First, the sample size is relatively modest, and the study design follows a cross-sectional approach. Consequently, the establishment of causal relationships using self-reported surveys remains limited, necessitating further research to validate the proposed connections. As this study specifically involves police personnel in India, its empirical findings may find greater applicability within Asian countries rather than Western contexts. To enhance the robustness of the study findings, it is advisable to replicate this research using a broader spectrum of public servants, such as administrative officers or security forces, even encompassing paramilitary personnel. Additionally, this study employs convenience sampling as its sampling technique, which carries several limitations. These include selection bias, limited information about the sampling frames, reduced generalizability and the potential for overrepresentation of certain groups. To address these limitations, future studies might consider employing probability sampling techniques and multistage sampling designs.

Moreover, augmenting the research with qualitative methodologies, such as focus interviews, can offer a deeper exploration of the study’s outcomes. This step is especially pertinent due to the inherent limitations within a quantitative research design. Incorporating qualitative methods can provide nuanced insights and a more comprehensive understanding of the study’s implications. We explored a moderator (i.e., social support) in our model, but future studies can develop and test other factors that will strengthen the given relationships (e.g., personality, collaboration, social climate, organizational learning). Relatedly, other potential mediators might also be studied as part of future research (e.g., organizational commitment, wellbeing). Demographic variables such as gender, age group, hierarchical positions are not studied for this study; hence, future study should examine the influence of above-noted demographic factors on police service quality. Another potential line of investigation could be a comparative analysis of different generations of police personnel such as Generation Y and Generation Z, which is a dominant workforce segment of contemporary workplace (Naim & Lenka, 2017). Further, this study will pave the way for future research work in this domain, which should utilize longitudinal data.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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