Abstract
This article examines smallholder women farmers’ awareness of climatic factors and the adaptation strategies to climate change events and how they influence their farming methods. A household survey was conducted on 50 smallholder women farmers at Akropong in the Nkoranza South Municipality in the forest-savannah transition zone of Ghana. The survey was complemented with in-depth and semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed that women farmers use multiple adaptation strategies such as creating fire belts to prevent fire outbreak in the dry season, creating channels on their farmland to prevent erosion, planting crops that can withstand excessive rain and drought and mixed cropping to overcome livelihood challenges resulting from climatic factors. The article therefore argues for an in-depth research and intensive education as a targeted intervention in understanding climate change and training women smallholder farmers on adaptation strategies to overcome climatic elements affecting farming and food production which serve as their main livelihood.
Introduction
In rural Africa, the livelihood of inhabitants depends on agriculture and forest resources as these provide economic, social-cultural and ecosystem services to the well-being of the population (Coumou & Rahmstorf, 2012; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2007, 2013, 2018; McCarthy et al., 2001). In Ghana, for instance, Mawunya and Adiku (2013) have observed that about 70% of the population derives their livelihood from agricultural activities, and over half of the agricultural labour force in Ghana is made up of women (SEND, 2014). However, agriculture is widely reported to be sensitive to climate variations, which have implications on food production (Parry et al., 2007; Stott et al., 2004). The effects of climate change on regions are experienced by all, including male and females smallholder farmers. Studies, however, show that men and women cope with climate change effects differently due to unequal access to assets and resources necessary for adaptation (IPCC, 2013; Parmesan & Yohe, 2003; Root et al., 2003; Stott et al., 2004). Africa is considered one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change due to widespread poverty, land tenure litigation and over dependence on rain-fed agriculture (IPCC, 2014; Roy et al., 2019; UNDP, 2019). In line with this, African women are on the frontline of climate change impacts but are poorly equipped to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. Nonetheless, women’s ability to work with the changing environment is vital to their quality of life and to the survival of their communities (Boko et al., 2007; United Nations [UN], 2008).
Climate change is mainly a result of anthropogenic factors with effects manifesting through floods, droughts, erratic rainfall pattern and extreme weather events (Addaney & Moyo, 2018). Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns in drought-prone areas are likely to increase the population of pests and diseases in both humans and crops, resulting in low yields in output and reduction in income levels of women farmers who are considered most vulnerable to climate change impacts (SEI, 2008; UN, 2008; UNFCCC, 2006). Hence, examining the awareness of smallholder women farmers is essential in exploring their adaptation strategies against the adverse impact of climate change on agricultural and food production in vulnerable communities. This is important because awareness of climate change is a requirement for farming and agricultural adaptation (Mulenga et al., 2017), which is essential in reducing climate risk factors in the coming decades as the climate keeps changing (Howden et al., 2007).
In Ghana, many rural households depend on agricultural products, forest resources and other non-farm activities for their livelihood (Sarpong & Anyidoho, 2012; SEI, 2008). Agriculture (both crop production and animal farming) in its various forms is an extremely essential economic sector globally. It is reported that about 70% of Ghana’s population derives their livelihood from agricultural activities (Mawunya & Adiku, 2013). The forest-savannah transition zone is considered as the major area of food production in Ghana (MOFA, 2014). Most of the agricultural activities in these areas are mainly subsistence and are undertaken by women. The Nkoranza South Municipality with its fringe communities, which is the focus of this study, lies within the forest savannah zone. It is an agrarian community where agricultural activities, similar to many rural areas across Africa, are largely rain-fed. There is substantial evidence of a decline in agriculture productivity as a result of changes in the climatic conditions of the area.
It is against this background that this article examines how smallholder women farmers in the Akropong community perceive climate change and how the change in climatic elements affects their livelihoods. Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010) show that agriculture activities are mostly affected by irregular rainfall pattern and long drought period, which also influence soil moisture content. Inadequate rainfall leads to poor seed germination and seedling emergence, which negatively affect crop yields (Mawunya & Adiku, 2013). However, the reduction in agriculture productivity is also linked to the level of vulnerability of women farmers due to the fact that over 50% of the labour in the agricultural sector are women (SEND, 2014). Therefore, considering smallholder women farmers perception of climate change will be an essential tool to identify some adaptation measures used in tackling climate change. More importantly, the information gathered from this study has implications for similar agro-ecological zones to guide interventions in addressing the decline in agriculture produce and the vulnerability of women in the agricultural sector. The article is divided into five sections. Following this introduction, the second section critically reviews the conceptual link between climate change vulnerability and women in agriculture with special reflections on sub-Saharan Africa. The third section presents the research methods and design as well as information on the study area. The fourth section presents the data and discussion of the findings, leading to summary of the key findings, conclusion and recommendations in the fifth section.
Climate Vulnerability and Women in Agriculture
Vulnerability is conceived as the degree to which a system is susceptible to and unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes (IPCC, 2007, 2014). Climate variability includes three components, namely, exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity (Addaney, 2020; IPCC, 2001). The estimation of key vulnerabilities in any system and damage implied thus depend on exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Tubiello and Rosenzweig (2008) provide a framework on exposure, sensitivity and adaptation for assessing vulnerability in the agricultural sector (Table 1).
Framework of Vulnerability Criteria.
Climate change exposure refers to biophysical indicators with measures for determining exposure including soil, climate (temperature and precipitation), crop calendar, water availability and yields. The Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC (2007) defines sensitivity as the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate variability or change. The incidence of climate variability or change could directly affect crop yield or indirectly cause coastal flooding. The effect may be direct (e.g., a change in crop yield in response to a change in the mean, range or variability of temperature) or indirect (e.g., damages caused by an increase in the frequency of coastal flooding due to sea-level rise). As shown in Table 1, the sensitivity indicators for climate change and extreme weather conditions are water stress, land degradation, low technology and, high dependence of livelihoods on agriculture. While some communities are able to manage these adverse conditions, others are unable to do so, thus becoming increasingly vulnerable to climate variability and change. In line with this are calls to improve the adaptive capacities of individuals, particularly, farmers.
Adaptive capacity is the ability of an affected system, region or community to cope with the impacts and risks of climate change (IPCC, 2001). An adaptive capacity is deemed an important tool to reduce vulnerability (Engle, 2011). The ability to adapt to and cope with climate change impacts is a function of wealth, technology, information, skills, infrastructure, institutions, equity, empowerment and ability to spread risk (IPCC, 2007). Mahendra (2011) asserts that livelihoods can be affected adversely due to vulnerability to climate change for poor and vulnerable groups such as women, children, indigenous population, forest-based and natural resource dependent communities. Social vulnerability is, therefore, likely to be severe among these groups of people in the affected areas (Euronet Consortium, 2012). Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010) emphasize that poor groups with inadequate livelihood assets are more vulnerable to climate change due to their low adaptive capacity. Vulnerability to climate variability and change becomes a subject of serious concern when viewed through gender lens (Addaney & Moyo, 2018).
Gender-related inequalities are pervasive in the developing world and cut across sectors. These inequalities often manifest in a high incidence of poverty about women. In Africa where women constitute about 80% of workforce in the agricultural sector, the incidence of vulnerability and poverty among them remain high (Addaney, 2018;). The vulnerability of women in the agricultural sector in Africa is expected to worsen due to the pervasive impact of climate change (Addaney & Moyo, 2018). Yet, targeted investments in research, policy and development actions are not widespread. Consequently, beneficial impacts have not been recorded in Africa. This has resulted in calls for incorporation of gender in designing interventions addressing climate variability and change and their negative impacts (Addaney, 2018; Bernier et al., 2015; Beuchelt & Badstue, 2013). Clearly, there are variations in output of farmlands managed by men and women across countries and crops but ranges from 4% to 25% of the value of agricultural production per hectare in sub-Saharan Africa (Aguilar et al., 2015; Backiny-Yitna & McGee, 2015; Oseni et al., 2015; World Bank and ONE, 2014). The growing women’s unequal access to key agricultural inputs such as land, labour, knowledge, fertilizer and improved seeds and seedlings further widens this gap (FAO, 2011; Farnworth et al., 2016; Wambugu et al., 2011; World Bank and ONE, 2014). Thus, the cost of neglecting the wide ‘gender gap’ in agricultural productivity and development in most countries is substantial (Ali, 2015; FAO, 2011; Peterman et al., 2014; UNWomen, 2015).
As environmental change unfurls, eccentric climate impacts are expected. Undoubtedly, this would influence the nature of soils with negative results for the levels of sustenance. Women’s vulnerability to climate change impacts should be explored with the goal of making adaptation measures meet their particular needs. More so, strategies need to mirror women’s lived realities of environmental and climate change with the goal that fitting mediation can be set up to minimise the effect of such changes (Addaney, 2018). Giving proper support to women farmers such as smart agricultural technologies, modernization of indigenous knowledge, simple silos and asset management are equally significant in addressing the effect of climate change on women smallholder farmers. Strong arguments have been made for addressing gender issues in adaptation, climate finance, knowledge and technology transfers to prevent climate change from exacerbating existing gender inequalities (Addaney, 2018; Geraldine, 2009). However, lack of research and the resulting paucity of hard evidence on gender, agriculture and food production in the face of climate change make it difficult to discern the many and complex links. When gender is mentioned at all as a climate change issue, it is usually with reference to the particular vulnerability of poor women in developing countries.
This certainly has implications on women’s livelihoods. Livelihood consists of capabilities, assets and activities required for a living, and it is sustainable when it can adjust with and recover from shocks (Scoones, 1998). Most households do not often depend on a single livelihood source but on a diverse portfolio of activities and social support in their struggle for survival to improve standards of living (Ellis, 1998). Rural households obtain a livelihood from agriculture, rural labour market and self-employment in the non-farm economy of rural communities and towns (Mahendra, 2011). In sub-Saharan Africa, where a large portion of the rural population depends heavily on agriculture as their prime source of income and livelihood, agriculture remains a key sector for livelihood enhancement and economic transformation. Nearly 80% of the world’s poorest people live in rural areas (FAO, 2015), with sub-Saharan Africa, together with East and South Asia, accounting for about 95% of the world’s rural poor (World Bank, 2017).
Although agriculture-led growth plays a vital role in controlling poverty and transforming the economies of many Asian and Latin American countries, the strategy has not yet worked in Africa (Fosu-Mensah et al., 2012; Okem & Bracking, 2019). Donald et al. argue that the livelihoods of rural households differ across regions and countries. The majority of rural households depend on one type of activity but most people seek to diversify their livelihood base as a way to reduce risk (climatic and non-climatic risks). Stephen and Downing (2001) (2001) asserts that agricultural activities centred in the rural community often face several risks leading to economic hardship that makes them vulnerable and poor. Soussan et al. (2002) explain livelihood assets as the means of production available to a given individual, household or group that can be used in their livelihood activities. The livelihood assets are also known as livelihood capital, which includes human, social, natural, physical and financial capitals (Carney, 2002; Lasse, 2001). Livelihood is, therefore, sustainable when it focuses on the mobilization of assets, capabilities, capital to enhance well-being and protect the environment (Redclift and Sage, 1998; Scoones, 2009). The sustainability of a livelihood system is a function of two features: sensitivity and resilience. A livelihood is sensitive when it is negatively affected by external shocks such as drought, wild fires and flood; also the resilience of a livelihood is the time period required for a system to adapt and recover from the shocks.
Impact of and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Agricultural and Food Production Sector
Agricultural and food security is greatly affected by climate change through the changing rainfall patterns, land, capital and biodiversity (Adger, 2003; Brown & Crawford, 2008; Tschakert et al., 2011). The impact is severe on production yields, thus the inability to feed nine billion people by 2050 (Hanjra & Qureshi, 2010). The FAO (2008) reports that if agricultural production in the low-income countries of Africa is adversely affected by climate change, the livelihoods of large numbers of the rural poor will be at risk and their vulnerability to food insecurity will increase. Meanwhile, Kabubo-Mariara (2008) indicates that climate variability is most pronounced in the arid and semi-arid lands that encompass about two-thirds of the African continent. According to IPCC (2007, 2014, 2018), global climate models predict that climate change impact will affect global food production. Climate change affects agriculture in several ways including decline in crop yields, disease outbreak, soil infertility and high level of evapotranspiration. Agricultural systems depend on reliable water sources and in most developing countries, agriculture production is rain-fed but with the current global warming effect, there is an alteration in rainfall patterns with huge uncertainties (Fallis, 2013). This has adversely led to a reduction in yield and productivity of arable crops and livestock since their performance depends greatly on environmental conditions. As temperature increases, a decline in rainfall will cause ecological stresses that could impair the functioning of ecological systems particularly in terms of plant growth and development, poor seed germination and seedling emergence, which will retard crop yields (Mawunya & Adiku, 2013). This has implication for the agricultural sector. For instance, a study conducted by Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010) shows that agricultural activities are mostly affected by irregular rainfall patterns and long drought period, which also influence soil moisture content.
In terms of adaptation to climate change in the agricultural sector, the major strategies involve reducing the impacts of climate change by adjusting processes and strategies. Basically, climate change adaptation is classified as either autonomous or planned (policy-driven) (IPCC, 2007, 2013). Autonomous adaptation refers to actions taken by the farmer (micro-level) while planned adaptation efforts are based on decisions made by the government, the private sector and development partners (macro level) to effectively manage actualities or threats of climate change (Howden et al., 2007; Stage, 2010). Adaptation to the projected climate change in Ghana needs to therefore focus on how vulnerable and resource-poor smallholder communities can survive under severe climatic conditions, such as late commencement of the rain seasons, shorter and more variable rain seasons, and low soil moisture conditions (Boko et al., 2007; Bryan et al., 2009). According to Olesen et al. (2013) crop-related adaptation activities can be grouped into four categories: access to and affordability of critical inputs; adoption of appropriate management practices; access to research and extension services; and enactment of enabling policies by government and development partners. The first two categories relate to activities that are conducted at the micro-level, the third and fourth categories are related to activities conducted at the macro-level, respectively (Tambo & Abdoulaye, 2012). For instance, access to low-interest credit allows smallholder farmers in Ghana to invest in critical inputs and technologies that reduce their vulnerability to climate change such as improved seeds, fertilizers and agrochemicals (Fosu-Mensah et al., 2012).
Adaptation Option for Ghana’s Agricultural Sector.
In the absence of these interventions, local farmers in Ghana have relied on their traditional systems to cope or adapt to climate variability/change. Traditional and local knowledge is unique to a particular group of people as it is transmitted through word of mouth and observation from one generation to another. Indigenous knowledge system (IKS) is a body of knowledge of the indigenous people of a particular geographical area that have survived on for a very long period of time (Mapara, 2009). Traditional rainfall prediction refers to indicators that are locally used to interpret the weather to be expected (Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al., 2013). Traditional knowledge in climate change differs across communities, cultural backgrounds and environment (Hart, 2007). Nonetheless, ‘indigenous or traditional knowledge may prove useful for understanding the potential of certain adaptation strategies that are cost-effective, participatory and sustainable’ (IPCC, 2001). For decades now, most farmers in Africa and Ghana have used traditional methods to predict the weather. For example, Sanni et al. (2012) reported that farmers use a variety of traditional methods to predict the weather, including prevailing wind direction and cloud patterns. Clearly, indigenous knowledge is ‘an invaluable basis for developing adaptation and natural resource management strategies in response to environmental and other forms of change’ (IPCC, 2007). There is, therefore, a need to promote these methods taking cognizance of climate change, which makes modern methods less reliable especially in rural areas where there are inadequate weather forecasting instruments. In addition, those people with valuable information (elders) are passing away and living organisms such as plants and animals are quickly disappearing or going to extinct due to climate change and over population (Risiro, 2012). The role of local knowledge systems in responding to climate change needs to be recognized and promoted, hence, this study.
Methods and Study Area
Study Setting
Ghana’s economy is greatly dependent on agriculture as it contributes 47% of the country’s gross national product and more than 70% of its exports (Cobbinah and Anane, 2016). It employs about 60% of the country’s population (MOFA, 2010). The negative climatic impacts on crops and livestock production could result in food shortage and affect the economy (MOFA, 2018). Agriculture contributes a larger percentage to developing countries GDP; therefore, any negative effect on agriculture may destabilize the economy (Rosenzweig and Hillel, 2005). In Ghana, the agricultural sector contributes approximately 30% of the country’s GDP and employs about 70% of the population (Cobbinah and Anane, 2016; De Pinto et al., 2012; Kolavalli et al., 2012). The agricultural sector is argued to have the potential to grow at rates as high as 6% (Breisinger, 2008; De Pinto et al., 2012). This notwithstanding, climate change has the potential of inhibiting such progress in the long run as the agricultural sector is particularly vulnerable to its impacts. Ghana is already experiencing an increase in mean annual temperature of 1°C per decade since 1960. Monthly rainfall decreased about 2.4% per decade during the same period, though in the 1960s, the rainfall in Ghana was particularly high (De Pinto et al., 2012).
The Akropong farming community was purposively selected for the research. The community is located in the Nkoranza South Municipality of Ghana. Akropong was selected because it has more women engaged in farming within the municipality. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2010), the major economic activity is agriculture in the Nkoranza Municipality with an estimated 57% of the population engaging in it for their livelihood. The leading cash crop cultivated in the study site is cashew. Other food crops cultivated are yam, maize, cassava, water melon, cabbage, groundnut, tomatoes and garden eggs, which are dependent on rain-fed irrigation.
Food crop farming is complemented with poultry (chicken, turkey and pig) and livestock (cattle, goat and sheep) rearing, which serves as a key source of meat and additional income. Studies indicate that the unpredicted seasonality in agriculture caused by changing weather patterns leads to decrease in food crop production, low productivity and frequent bushfires making the future of farming in the municipality uncertain (Anaafo, 2015; Anaafo and Guba, 2017). In addition, the municipality is facing a serious threat of deforestation through increased human and animal activities such as the use of traditional farming methods, overgrazing, bushfires and timber exploitation (Anaafo and Inkoom, 2016). This situation has contributed to seasonal drying up of water bodies in the municipality. With Ghana expected to experience frequent and intense droughts, coupled with rainfall variability and rising temperatures (Cobbinah, 2021), the survival of micro- and small-scale rural farming in the Akropong community is threatened. This background provides a basis to explore how smallholder women farmers in the rural community of Akropong are adapting to the changing context and the implications of such changes on the future of food crop production in the study area and region as a whole.
Study Methods and Research Design
The study adopted a case study research method (Babbie, 2007; Yin, 2002) and purposive sampling (Guarte and Barrios, 2006; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003) to address the objectives of the research. The mixed methods design, using both qualitative and quantitative research methods was used for the data collection and analysis (Driscoll et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2005). A household survey was conducted with the sampled respondents to understand the extent of impacts of climate change in the community and assess the diversity of climate change adaptation strategies used by the smallholder women farmers. Using Slovin’s formula: n = N/1 + N(α)2, where n is the sample size, N is the total number of households, α is the margin of error (0.05), a sample of 50 households were selected and involved in the household survey. In addition, 10 other residents from the community, including agricultural extension officers, traditional leaders, an assembly member and leaders of farm-based groups, were purposively selected and engaged in in-depth interviews, based on their experiences with the impacts of climate change, which were observed during the surveys. Interviews were recorded after seeking community interviewees’ consent. The average time of the interviews was 45 minutes. Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were adopted in analysing the collected data through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 17) software and the NVIVO 10 software for analysing the qualitative data. The quantitative data, specifically, sex composition, educational status and perception of climate change were inferred using suitable tables in simple frequencies and percentages. The qualitative analysis was essentially description and explanation of perceptions and attitudes towards climate change adaption among rural farming households. The findings of the study were validated and verified through two focus group discussions with the community interviewees in the study site. This approach was useful in addressing any inconsistencies that had occurred during the data analysis.
Results and Discussions
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Demographic Distribution.
In terms of education, a large portion (98%) of the sampled population has either never received formal education or ended their education at the basic level. With a larger number of the respondents not being to school or ending school at the basic level, farming becomes an important livelihood since they cannot access formal sector jobs. This means that for a vast majority of women in the community, land becomes an important asset. The survey, however, shows that majority of the respondents (68%) are not household heads. This could impose serious limitations to their land ownership rights, as widely observed in many rural communities across Africa (Addaney, 2018; Addaney & Moyo, 2018;). As women in rural Ghana, their access to commercial lands could be limited because of gender limitations imposed on the ownership of land. It is not surprising that most of the respondents have small farm sizes of between 1.2 and 2.0 hectares with the mean farm size being less than 1.6 hectares. This limited size of farmlands for women farmers and the threat of climate change could make women farmers in rural Ghana more vulnerable. With small farm sizes and variable rainfall, farm yield is likely to be severely affected.
Evidence and Pattern of Climate Change in the Nkoranza South Municipality
The scientific data for the two most important climate variables (temperature and rainfall) for the Bono East Region (formerly part of the Brong Ahafo region) where Nkoranza South Municipality is located show evidence of a changing climate (see Figures 1 and 2). An analysis of temperature data provided by the GEONET Cast Centre of the University of Energy and Natural Resources, Ghana, over the past 30 years shows a gradual increase in both the mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures. Although there is an increasing trend in the average temperature, the data were highly variable. For example, in the year 1990 and 2007, the mean maximum temperatures were between 28.9°C and 33.2°C. Furthermore, the highest mean minimum temperature was recorded in the year 1994 (24.0°C) whilst the year 1985 recorded the lowest mean minimum temperature of 19.1°C. Clearly, temperature in the region has been variable over time.
Similarly, considerable variations in rainfall patterns have occurred (see Figure 2). Rainfall data over the past three decades indicate that an erratic average annual rainfall in the region, with the years 1980 and 2000 recording over 1,200 mm. Additionally, a general trend of decreasing average annual rainfall was observed. A good rainfall pattern is important for crop production. Conversely, variability in rainfall negatively affects crop production and productivity.
Perception of Smallholder Women Farmers on Climate Change
The predominant occupation among women in the Akropong community is crop farming. Some of the crops produced in the study area include cereal (maize, millet), legumes (peanut, beans) and tubers (cassava, yam, sweet potatoes). Sub-Saharan Africa is among the most vulnerable continents or regions to climate change impacts. Majority of the people in sub-Saharan Africa lives in abject poverty and are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture for their economic and livelihood sustenance. Therefore, variations in rainfall patterns and temperature adversely impact their economic and social survival (Juana et al., 2012). From a gender perspective, evidence shows that climate change impacts affect men and women differently, where the latter are the most vulnerable.
Community Perceptions on Changing Weather Patterns.
The farmers attributed the cause of changes in temperature and rainfall to many factors, including drought, deforestation, high intensity of sun and bush burning (see Table 5). The farmers explained that these elements cause high temperatures and rainfall variability. This is in line with the National Climate Change Policy (Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation [MESTI], 2013) report, which shows a steady rise in temperature and decrease in mean annual rainfall in all the agro-ecological zones in Ghana. According to the NCCP, the average rate of increase in temperature for a decade has been 0.21°C per decade. Other factor identified by the farmers as cause of climate variability is the increasing influence of the dry Harmattan winds from the Saharan Desert that come through the northern part of Ghana to the transition belt where Akropong is located. These winds make the place drier and cause a rise in temperature. All the respondents further indicated that climatic event such as rainfall variability and dry seasons have major impacts on their farming activities. This confirms the conclusion made by Masvaya et al. (2017) that the high degree of rainfall variability, combined with relatively low capacity of most rural households, restricts household crop management and overall crop water productivity. The rain-fed nature of agriculture in Africa puts crops at a high risk of failure given the erratic nature of rain as well as rainfall variability.
The observations of local farmers on daily and annual climatic events translate into a valuable local knowledge system that is utilised by these farmers in making important decision regarding their agricultural activities. For the women farmers, climate variability is evident and they have better understanding of the phenomenon, which can influence adaptation practices.
Effects of Climatic Variability on the Livelihood of Smallholder Women Farmers
Perceived Impacts of Changing Weather Patterns.
It was further observed that due to the effects of climate variability, farmers are not able to harvest produce that is equivalent to the amount of the physical and financial input made at the initial stages of their farming. This is due to the fact that the crops do not get enough water for maturity and fruition (Sanni et al., 2012: 629). In addition, the length of cropping season is drastically reduced by the diminishing rainfall pattern. Until short-term crop yielding varieties are found and introduced to these smallholder women farmers, their agricultural productivity and well-being would be adversely affected. Considering the fact that more than 90% of the food consumed in the community is produced by these smallholder farmers, the effect of climate variability on community livelihood is enormous. In an attempt to explain the impact of lack of rain on farming a farmer said that ‘I farmed three and half acres and my son also farmed two acres. But because the rains didn’t come as we expect we couldn’t get anything from that farm’ (Woman farmer: field interview).
Evidence shows that daily temperatures above a certain threshold may have damaging consequences on crop yields (Challinor et al., 2005; Porter & Semenov, 2005; Schlenker & Lobell, 2010; Wheeler et al., 2013). This implies that crops require different levels of temperature at their germination, growth, flowering and fruit bearing stages. It was, however, reported by the farmers that the rising temperature has significantly affected the growth and maturity of crops cultivated, resulting in poor crop yield, crop failure and post-harvest losses. This has exacerbated the already vulnerable and poverty situation among smallholder women farmers in Akropong. The phenomenon of high temperatures causes disruptions in the ecological system and affects plant growth and yield.
Again, with the small farm sizes, women in the area are more prone to the incidence of poverty than men. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2013) reported that about 70% of all agricultural output in Ghana came from the then Brong Ahafo region where the study area was located. If farming is affected by climatic factors such as irregular rainfall and extreme temperature coupled with other non-climatic factors, then household food security and income levels will be severely affected (Sanni et al., 2012; Schlenker & Lobell, 2010). This situation would make women less empowered to participate in decision making or take up leadership roles because financial capacity is considered one of the key elements for women empowerment across Africa.
The study also revealed that most of the women farmers do not engage in alternative livelihood activities aside farming. When asked, most of them complained about lack of access to financial capital and their bad experience in repaying loans for their farming venture, due mainly to crop failure. A woman farmer lamented:
Help! Hmm, I went for a loan of Ghc2000 (US$400) from the credit union for my farm, now that the crop didn’t do well, the debt is on my head to pay, but if the rains had come for the farm to do well, I would have had enough money from that five acres to repay the loan and even save some for domestic upkeep. When you are in such situation you don’t get help from anywhere which makes it even more frustrating. (Woman farmer: field interview)
The low-income status of these smallholder women farmers also affects investment in their farming activities. The farmers complained about their inability to repay loans because of the low yield. This, according to them, affects their ability to purchase farm inputs and hire labour. This observation is similar to that of Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010) who indicated that rural inhabitants are mostly involved in rain-fed agriculture of which climate change is a major risk factor affecting their livelihood and household food security.
Smallholder Women Farmers Adaptation Strategies
Adaptation is a strategy that can help reduce the adverse effects of climate change on vulnerable communities. Climate change adaptation strategies are in two forms: autonomous and planned adaptation (Howden et al., 2007). Findings from the study indicate that women farmers in Akropong employ varied mechanisms in adapting to climatic change. The climatic challenges noted were little rainfall and extremely hot temperature. With regards to climate variability, one of the women farmers explained her adaptation strategy as follows, ‘After planting maize, I often apply fertilizer immediately after two weeks. I use hoe to turn it around the maize to avoid direct exposure to the hot sun. Then, I apply the fertilizer again after 40 days’ (Woman farmer: field interview).
During long drought periods, the farmers created fire belts to prevent fire outbreak on their farms. The creation of fire belts is popular among those engaged in cashew farming. Some farmers also prepare their farmland for the next planting season to catch up with the rains which could come unexpectedly due to climatic change. The application of pesticides to control pest infestation was also a common practice among farmers. The farmers explained that during the dry season, pests invade their farms and they have to use both locally made and synthetic chemicals on their farmlands. They indicated that the locally made chemicals are more effective in controlling pests but are difficult to prepare in commercial quantities.
In periods of excessive rainfall, farmers created channels on their farmland to prevent erosion and also fix nitrogen into the soil by planting legumes. Some farmers also plant crops that can withstand excessive rain such as beans, okra, plantain, cocoyam, cassava and garden eggs. With extremely hot periods, farmers who cultivate vegetables near rivers and streams irrigate their farmland. Others adopt mixed cropping, where they grow food crops with tree crops like cashew. One farmer narrated:
As for this place, the crops we grow are groundnut, maize and beans. I now intercrop it with cashew but all the cashews that I planted are dead due to lack of rain, but I have planted new ones within my food crops I hope it get well. (Woman farmer: field interview)
They explained that the cashew plant provides shade to the food crops from direct contact with the sun and prevents soil water evaporation. The cashew leaves are also likely to decompose and fix nutrients into the soil. This resonates the assertion of Smit and Skinner (2002), who indicate that farm level adaptation or production level adaptation includes the modification of crop varieties that can withstand both long drought periods and excessive rainfall. Similarly, Bewket et al. (2013) reported that farmers adapt to climate change by planting tree crops for shade, use chemicals and fertilizers, irrigate and plant different crop varieties.
Most of the farmers indicated that irrigation farming happens to be one of the important coping mechanism put in place. But to be able to do it effectively, they must always farm close to the river in order to get access to water for irrigation as one farmer explained:
If it doesn’t rain, you can’t do anything about the highland. For lands that are close to the river, like my land, we hire a pumping machine to pump water from the river to water the crops. So, the land on the highland is just getting destroyed. I farmed 2.5 acres and my son farmed 2 acres; it all got destroyed due to lack of rain but the 1 acre I did close to the river did well because we pumped water from the river to irrigate it, so I was able to get some maize to sell for my upkeep. (Woman farmer: field interview)
Since agriculture in Ghana is largely rain-fed, every aspect of farming in the country is dependent on rain. As such, the respondents used traditional methods to predict the commencement of the rainy season. They also use the germination of certain weeds and shrubs and the presence of certain insects and animals such as toads and fireflies to determine the likelihood of rain and prepare accordingly. Similarly, the respondents also relied on information from the radio and television to predict weather changes.
Clearly, the negative effect of climate change on the agricultural lives of rural people is driving innovation among smallholder women farmers. It has been realised that crop production cannot continue as usual. Erratic rainfall and rising temperatures are increasingly becoming ‘normal’ occurrences. In view of the consequences of climate variability on crop production, the farmers are exploring options for getting better yield. Efforts to study and predict rainfall, mixed cropping and the use of local chemicals to control pests are all adaptation measures used by the smallholder women farmers in Akropong.
Conclusion
Farming is a major livelihood venture among the women in the Akropong community and rural Ghana as whole. Crops are mainly produced on subsistence basis for domestic consumption, even though there are a few women who cultivate food crops like maize and cash crops such as cashew for sale. However, climate variability is negatively affecting the livelihood scheme of rural women. The present and future impacts of global climate change are widely reported globally. This study provides further evidence that current impacts are more severe on smallholder women farmer in Ghana. The respondents’ experiences supported by meteorological data show that climate change is adversely impacting the natural environment, small-scale agriculture and human lives in the Akropong community of Nkoranza South Municipality.
The study revealed that the smallholder women farmers are devising various strategies to adapt to the phenomenon of climate variability. In predicting the weather, traditional methods were employed with a little reliance on radio and television for scientific weather information. The adaptation strategies employed in this study fall within the autonomous adaptation. Thus, farmers’ methods of adaptation included the application of pesticide and fertilizer, irrigation, planting of crops that can withstand excessive rain and long drought periods and creation of fire belts. Although these adaptation mechanisms are working for the smallholder farmers, a blend of planned adaptation with autonomous are needed to enhance the adaptive capacity of the women engaged in rain-fed agriculture. It is, thus, expected that a well-coordinated national policy and action plans would be helpful in promoting best adaptation strategies across rural farming communities in the country. Well-planned and properly implemented adaptation strategies are required to minimise the negative effects of climate variability on the lives of these rural women.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.