Abstract
Democracy studies significantly focus on political science and theory, and, in them, one finds historical analysis and examination of conditions of democracy and how to safeguard its strength. Nevertheless, its nemesis, “tyranny,” has not received the same focus and care it deserves. Very few have given tyranny a rigorous examination; in this regard, Abdul Rahman al-Kawakibi’s contribution is seminal. The Syrian author and activist addressed what no one before him had illuminated in the Arab world in such a distinctive, comprehensive manner. After more than a century, al-Kawakibi’s groundbreaking analysis of tyranny, originally published in 1899, has now been translated into English by Amer Chaikhouni. The book consists of a preface, an introduction, and nine chapters.
In the preface, al-Kawakibi observes that, in the nineteenth century, the elites in Egypt and the rest of the East searched for solutions to the prevalent social crises. After 30 years of research, he concludes that the root of the Eastern predicament was political tyranny, and the remedy was constitutional shura [consultation]. Al-Kawakibi highlights that he did not refer to a specific tyrant, government, or nation. He was interested in tyranny as a problem and how to investigate its evil effects on its subjects to eliminate it. In the introduction, al-Kawakibi raised several pertinent questions related to tyranny: What is tyranny? What are its causes? What is its prognosis? And with what should tyranny be replaced? (p. 6–7)
Chapter 1 portrays tyranny as the equivalent of a disease that severely infects society. Al-Kawakibi suggests diverse definitions for tyranny, such as “egotism and arrogance about one’s opinion and refusing to accept advice, or self-conceit in decisions and opinion about public rights” (p. 9). He argues that tyranny is inevitable unless there are monitoring powers and accountability present. Chapter 2 explores the relationships between tyranny and religion and demonstrates how tyrants manipulate and misuse religion to suppress people in the name of God. Tyrants surround themselves with clergy to confuse people about the distinction between Divine and profane tyrannic power. Al-Kawakibi asserts that Islam is full of commandments for abolishing despotism and establishing justice. For instance, he quotes the Quran’s order to the Prophet Muhammad “and consult them in affairs.”
In Chapter 3, Al-Kawakibi says that knowledge is light, ignorance is darkness and that a tyrant does not like his subjects to be enlightened by knowledge. A tyrant disapproves of knowledgeable individuals since knowledge is a power that threatens tyranny. Thus, knowledge and tyranny conflict with each other. If a nation becomes enlightened through knowledge, the natural consequence is that despotism comes to an end. Chapter 4 elaborates how tyranny deforms honor and replaces it with false ostentation. Al-Kawakibi reaffirms that the tyrant is a vulnerable and powerless individual who cannot maintain his rule except through false glorification and ostentation.
Chapter 5 exposes the relationship between tyranny and wealth. Al-Kawakibi affirms that tyrants are not concerned with ethics; instead, they strive to accumulate more wealth by violating public rights and exploiting the wealth of the weaker members of society. At the end of this chapter, he eloquently states, “Tyranny is more lethal than plague, more horrible than fire, more destructive than flood, and more humiliating than begging.” (p. 76). Chapter 6 analyzes ethics under despotism and maintains that under tyranny, there is only regression and deterioration, which turns values and norms upside down so that people are confused about good and evil. No wonder people under tyranny develop and acquire the most appalling ethics, and even decent people grow accustomed to hypocrisy and deceit.
Chapter 7 expounds that pedagogy and tyranny are contrasting elements; the more society has proper education, the less prevalent tyranny will be. Similarly, the presence of the latter tends to eradicate education. Al-Kawakibi contends that tyranny corrupts ethics and pedagogy, and under despotism, proper education is unimaginable. He states that under dictatorship, life is without spirit and is restricted merely to bodily and material purposes without any virtuous characteristics. Chapter 8 emphasizes that tyranny harms people, where the inclination to develop is discarded in favor of a longing for a decline, to the point where a nation might resist any urge for improvement. Al-Kawakibi formulates slogans as pedagogic tools for youth, for example, “I am independent. I rely upon no one but myself and my mind,” and “I stand with the truth, and I do not care” (p. 116). For al-Kawakibi, progress is not limited to economic and material development but includes other aspects such as knowledge, ethics, and spiritual progress.
The final chapter proposes practical steps to terminate despotism; it expresses three primary principles. First, “a nation in which all, or most of, its people do not feel the misery of tyranny, does not deserve liberty;” second, “tyranny cannot be resisted by force. It should be resisted by peaceful means in gradual steps;” (p. 131) and third, “before resisting a tyranny, a replacement political plan should be prepared” (p. 132.). Al-Kawakibi underlines that one must first reform oneself before intending to reform the nation. He again advises young intellectuals to follow primary principles such as working hard to advance their knowledge, especially in social science, and having a decent reputation and high ethical standards.
The Nature of Tyranny is magnificent and a classical exposition. It is one of the earliest conceptual books on the nature of tyranny in the Arabic language. It offers a unique perspective on the tyrannical features of totalitarianism and its destructive effects on several aspects of society. The book identifies a significant problem still challenging the Arab world. Al-Kawakibi’s monograph indicates reasonable causes of despotism and offers insightful explanations and solutions. The book’s final chapter on getting rid of tyranny is the most fundamental part. In closing, The Nature of Tyranny is recommended to anyone seeking to understand the Middle East and nineteenth-century Islamic social and political thought in a more profound sense.
