Abstract
The primary aim of this article is to assess the E-Government Development Index (EGDI) of Arab Gulf countries, and it elucidates the key obstacles impeding the progress of the Gulf countries in the e-government sector. The EGDI data for the Gulf countries have been obtained from the United Nations, and an online business intelligence tool has been utilized for visualization purposes to facilitate comprehension. The levels of indicators within EGDI have been examined upon effectively retrieving data and presenting it appropriately. The article discusses the key areas of improvement that require governments’ attention in the Gulf countries to enhance their EGDI score. This can be leveraged to advance to global standards, offering their citizens optimal governance. Countries in the Gulf region must recognize that the e-government effort encompasses more than simply the transformation of governance and the provision of high-quality services. Instead, it entails aligning with global trends and effectively competing with other nations regarding developmental advancements. Countries must adhere to prevailing e-government trends to ensure alignment with global standards and expedite national advancement.
Keywords
Introduction
The notion of e-government, which is frequently used interchangeably with electronic governance or digital government, has become a crucial tool in enhancing the effectiveness of governance and delivery of services to citizens globally. E-government refers to utilizing information and communication technologies (ICT) within the public sector to streamline administrative procedures, enhance transparency, and foster citizen participation in governance. In recent decades, a notable digital transition has taken place in different countries, resulting in diverse manifestations and levels of intensity. This shift has given rise to the E-Government Development Index (EGDI), a significant measure for evaluating a country’s preparedness and effectiveness in implementing e-government initiatives.
The Arab Gulf region, which includes countries Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), has not been exempt from implementing e-government programs (Meniado, 2021). These countries, renowned for their robust economic growth and ambitious goals, have made substantial investments in ICT infrastructure and e-government initiatives to promote economic diversification, enhance public services, and foster innovation. In the pursuit of establishing knowledge-driven and technologically progressive societies, it becomes imperative to conduct a comparative examination of the EGDI across the Gulf region. Such a study is crucial for obtaining a comprehensive evolution of e-government in these countries and for identifying exemplary approaches and strategies.
The primary objective of this article is to do a comprehensive investigation of the EGDI, specifically concentrating on the Gulf region. The purpose is to provide insight into their comparative standings, strengths, and areas that require enhancement in the e-government domain. The EGDI, formulated under the auspices of the UN, encompasses four fundamental dimensions: Online Service, Telecommunication Infrastructure, Human Capital, and E-Participation. These dimensions collectively assess the level of e-government development within a country. Through a meticulous examination of the EGDI scores of countries in the Gulf region, this article aims to provide a comparative analysis while identifying the underlying elements that contribute to the development of e-government (Ahmed et al., 2021). In addition, due to the distinctive social, political, and economic environment of the Gulf region, the findings can assist in understanding the influence of these contextual elements on the implementation and effectiveness of e-government initiatives globally.
Besides, the article aims to provide insights that can be used in the policy-making processes, promote the exchange of knowledge across countries, and encourage the adoption of a regional approach to developing e-government initiatives. The process of reforms undertaken by the countries in the Gulf region as they strive for excellence in e-government serves as an intriguing subject of study. The findings discussed in this article can offer insights applicable to developed and rising economies worldwide, rendering this research highly relevant and contemporary.
Understanding E-Government Concept
E-government is applying information technology in the government system, both at the federal and local levels, to optimize efficient, transparent, and effective public service procedures (Musfikar, 2018). E-government deployment is critical because it may improve government quality by providing new services, enhancing public participation, and expanding the global information infrastructure (Arief et al., 2021). As a result, e-government can actualize transparent government services, and the process can be tracked to provide accountable, effective, and efficient public services while avoiding irregularities.
Further, e-government is defined as the government’s response to citizens, the public and private sectors, and communication technology to offer services efficiently and effectively and interact with all stakeholders. The stages of e-government provide unique challenges, and as the advanced stages of e-government grow, new hurdles will emerge. Although developed countries compete to deliver increasingly modern services, underdeveloped countries are still not fully utilizing e-government (Savoldelli et al., 2014).
Over the last decade, governments worldwide have widely regarded e-government as a potent method for governance reform. There are two key reasons governments are pushing toward e-government. One is the rise of new public management theory in the 1960s and 1970s, which holds that government is the provider of services, citizens and businesses are customers who enjoy services, and governments should be customer-oriented, shifting their functions from management to service orientation. Two, governments try to enable citizens and businesses to access government services and information efficiently and effectively and improve transparency, accountability, and governance capacity through the internet and other IT communication channels.
E-government users fall into two categories: Citizens and businesses. According to the life cycle theory of government services, e-government services for citizens mainly include birth declarations, education registration, social insurance, tax returns, and other business. E-government services for enterprises primarily include enterprise registration, tax declaration, customs, intrastate declaration, and other business. E-government services include access to government information, access to government forms and services, the release of policy information, employment and business opportunities, and election information, archival files of tax, registration, signing a contract, paying a fine, and submissions for all types of government advice.
As summarized in Table 1 and Figure 1, there is an immense correlation between the growth of e-government and the trajectory of improvement in the delivery of services and economic growth.
Taxonomy of Research Literature.
Prisma Flow Diagram for Systematic Literature Review.
In recent years, there has been a predominant research focus on the contemporary condition of e-government, the evaluation of e-government services, and the correlation between e-government and specific macroeconomic indicators that delineate the condition and effectiveness of a country’s economy (Table 1 and Figure 1). One study employed content and correlation analysis to examine the potential impact of economic development and population on forecasting the level of a country’s e-government involvement. The findings demonstrated a statistically significant link between the two factors. Hence, there is a correlation between a country’s level of resources and size and its utilization of web-based service delivery, indicating that countries with higher income and larger populations exhibit greater involvement in e-government initiatives.
Another study employed correlation analysis to ascertain the factors contributing to the successful deployment of e-government. The findings indicated a positive association between internet usage and the quantity of cell phones while demonstrating a notably weak correlation with literacy levels. Nevertheless, the study did not consider additional intangible factors influencing the adoption and utilization of e-government services, such as individuals’ social backgrounds and economic levels.
Understanding EGDI
The term EGDI refers to the utilization of ICT to engage with governmental entities and facilitate business transactions via electronic means. The determination of EGDI parameters involves the consideration of multiple indicators, including devices, maps, and key metrics, which play a supportive role in facilitating digital transformation across countries. Furthermore, the EGDI encompasses a matrix of four distinct classifications, namely, the Online Services Index (OSI), Telecom Infrastructure Index (TII), Human Capital Index (HCI), and E-Participation Index (EPI).
The OSI is a part of the EGDI, which shows how ICT is used to get public services to people. The TII examines the utilization of the internet, telephony, ICT, and the infrastructure supporting community and human resources. The HCI is primarily based on the human resources component, which serves as the foundation for ensuring the availability of online services. The available choices encompass electronic participation elements and the delegation of the security aspect for e-governance services.
Moreover, one can find a direct correlation between e-government maturity and factors such as ICT infrastructure, e-participation, and human capital. The level of governance in a nation, such as its political stability, regulatory quality, or control of corruption, had little impact on its e-government maturity. Furthermore, the relationship between governance and e-government maturity was not influenced by e-participation. Governments in the Gulf region employ a combination of strategies to advance the centralization of their e-government development, including implementing new infrastructures and services that are centrally promoted, enabling more seamless delivery of integrated services, whether virtual or physical. Additionally, governments in the Gulf region adjusted their organizational structures to support this centralization effort. The analysis examined the condition of e-government within the seven Gulf countries, utilizing data sourced from UN e-government surveys and emphasizing the most significant plans and programs without establishing any correlation with macroeconomic indicators. Other analyses of the changes in the EGDI throughout 2008–2012 provided a discussion on the primary elements that influenced this index.
Despite the widespread acceptance and utilization of the EGDI and its ranking systems, some scholars have voiced concerns regarding the methodological approach employed in evaluating the expansion of e-government through the EGDI. It has been contended that there is a need to modify the calculation of the EGDI and utilize factor analysis to enhance the index’s accuracy in capturing its intended measurement. Further, it has been argued that a modified version of the EGDI, known as the e-government development by gross domestic product (EGDGDP), might be more useful. This improved index considers the gross domestic product (GDP), thus offering a more comprehensive evaluation of a country’s e-government development. This is due to its ability to gauge a country’s performance in relation to its GDP rather than relying on absolute metrics currently employed for each country.
Figure 2 shows the key terms used in different articles as an important theme of their research topic.
World Cloud Analysis through NVivo.
Figure 3 displays a compilation of articles included in the Scopus database. These articles are organized in chronological order based on their respective publication years.
Figure 4 presents a visual representation of the articles included on the Scopus database categorized based on the respective countries of publication.
Figure 5 illustrates the articles their respective authors submitted to the Scopus database.
Research Method
To examine the EGDI in the Gulf region, a thorough study plan is required that integrates quantitative and qualitative methodologies. This section provides an overview of the approaches utilized to examine and comprehend the region’s current state, expansion, and determinants of e-government activities.
Theoretical Framework
Figure 6 illustrates the theoretical framework employed in the article. The beneficial impact of the OSI indicator on the EGDI is observed through its assessment of the caliber and accessibility of government services provided online. A greater OSI score signifies a more sophisticated and effective e-government system, hence enhancing the rating of the EGDI. The TII indicator significantly influences the EGDI. A greater TII signifies an enhanced communications infrastructure, facilitating the more proficient and successful provision of e-government services. Consequently, this results in an elevated EGDI.
Graphic Depiction of the Theoretical Framework Employed in this Article.
The enhancement of digital skills and capabilities of individuals through the HCI indicator can positively influence the EGDI. This is because improved digital skills and capabilities can increase engagement with e-government services. An elevated level of human–computer interaction can enhance individuals’ education and technological proficiency, enabling them to utilize online government platforms effectively. Consequently, this can lead to an improvement in the overall EGDI. The EPI positively influences the EGDI as it assesses the extent of citizen engagement and participation in digital government activities. Elevated EPI scores indicate heightened public participation, enhancing transparency, accountability, and responsiveness within e-governance.
Data Collection
The main data source utilized in this article is the EGDI released by the UN. This index offers defined metrics and indicators that enable the evaluation of governments’ online presence and capabilities at the national level. Data about the Gulf region, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, were systematically gathered over 5 years between 2018 and 2022. Additional data from official government websites and papers, and pertinent scholarly publications were incorporated to enhance the analysis.
Sample and Population
The sample for this research consists of the countries in the Gulf region, as indicated in Table 2. The study focuses on a specific population from which the sample was selected. The data were collected using purposive sampling, a method in which the sample is chosen based on pre-existing knowledge of the target population’s characteristics.
E-Government Development Index (EGDI) Ranking of Gulf Countries, 2022.
Google Looker Studio (GLS), a business intelligence solution platform, analyzed Gulf region EGDI data from the UN website, and it is available online in interactive dashboards without any additional installation. 1 The GLS only accepts CSV data, which can be done by using CSV or exporting data from both files using Google Sheets. This facilitates spreadsheet creation and editing. For the 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2022 surveys, UN e-government knowledgebase Gulf region EGDI data were used. The findings arrived after testing and examining the pattern across Gulf countries with the highest and lowest EGDI values. 2
Figure 7 depicts the EGDI scores of Gulf region countries, specifically showcasing the data based on the survey conducted in the year 2022.
Keywords and filter used to search the data from Scopus database: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“e-gOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENT INDEX” OR “GULF REGION”) AND PUBYEAR > 2011 AND PUBYEAR < 2023 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (PUBSTAGE, “final”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “j”) OR LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “p”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (OA, “all”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “SOCI”)).
Results and Discussion
Exploring EGDI
Upon analyzing the trajectory of EGDI scores of the Gulf countries over 5 years, it becomes evident that there has been a notable improvement in EGDI scores when comparing the data.
Table 3 underlines that the UAE has consistently been a leader in e-government development in the Gulf region. It has implemented various initiatives to enhance digital services, including the UAE Vision 2021 and the Smart Dubai initiative. Bahrain has also achieved tremendous progress in e-government development, focusing on increasing online services and digital infrastructure. The country has launched efforts like the National Portal and the e-Government Authority to boost its digital transformation. Qatar has also invested heavily in e-government programs to improve public services and increase digital accessibility and has launched programs such as Qatar Digital Government and the e-Government Portal to facilitate online services. Saudi Arabia has been working to improve its e-government services and digital infrastructure, implementing initiatives such as the National Transformation Program and the Saudi e-Government Program to improve digital accessibility and service delivery. Kuwait focuses on improving its e-government services and digital infrastructure, implementing initiatives such as the Kuwait e-Government Portal. Iraq lags compared to other countries and is currently in the early phase of developing e-government. Political instability and insufficient resources pose challenges for the country. However, initiatives like the Iraq National Portal and the e-Government Committee have been launched to improve digital services.
Gulf Region Countries Score from 2016 to 2022.
Upon examining the EGDI performance, some salient factors contributing to the observed patterns can be identified. The Gulf countries encounter obstacles in achieving equitable access to e-government services, as they grapple with discrepancies in digital inclusion across different segments of their populations, encompassing marginalized people and rural regions. The issues around data privacy and security provide considerable challenges, as individuals may exhibit reluctance in utilizing e-government platforms due to apprehensions regarding the mishandling or unauthorized access to their personal information. Moreover, numerous Gulf countries continue to face challenges in comprehensively integrating their diverse government services and agencies, resulting in a fragmented and less user-friendly experience for citizens. Consequently, this contributes to inefficiencies and duplications in the delivery of services. In terms of digital infrastructure investment, some Gulf countries have substantially improved their digital infrastructure by allocating resources toward developing high-speed internet connectivity and cloud-based platforms. These investments have resulted in increased accessibility and efficiency of e-government services.
Further, the adoption of mobile technology and the subsequent creation of mobile applications have significantly enhanced the accessibility of e-government services. This progress has mostly benefited a technologically proficient populace and prioritizes mobile devices. Adopting a user-centric strategy has helped the Gulf countries prioritize the enhancement of user experience and satisfaction with e-government services through improved design, user-friendly interfaces, and streamlined procedures.
Exploring Online Service Index Score
Upon evaluating the initial indicator of the EGDI, namely, the Online Service Index score, it has been observed that, throughout the years, this particular indicator has consistently demonstrated commendable performance in the Gulf countries. These countries have consistently achieved a minimum score of 0.50, except for Iraq, which has exhibited subpar performance. The underlying reasons for Iraq’s unsatisfactory performance are political instability and government paralysis.
Table 4 shows the annual OSI scores. The countries have been arranged in descending order based on their overall OSI scores.
Gulf Countries Score from 2016 to 2022.
Bahrain has made tremendous progress in expanding its e-government services, providing its residents with a wide range of online services. Kuwait has achieved significant advances in its e-government services, offering various online services to its inhabitants. Oman has made significant efforts to improve its e-government services, providing various online services. In the Qatari case, the progress has been tremendous in expanding its e-government services, offering its residents online services. Similarly, Saudi Arabia has achieved significant progress, providing diverse online services to citizens and residents. The UAE has succeeded in e-government services, offering its residents a wide choice of online services. Lastly, Iraq has made some progress in building e-government services, but there is still space for improvement regarding online service availability and quality.
Upon examination of the OSI scores, it can be observed that the study and benchmarking of online service index ratings for Gulf countries may be impeded by the restricted availability and reliability of data, which can limit access to accurate and current information. The absence of standardization poses difficulties in establishing a uniform baseline for comparison due to variations in measurement procedures and data collection strategies employed by different sources. The assessment of online services necessitates the consideration of distinctive security and privacy concerns, highlighting the significance of incorporating these factors into the evaluation process. The topic of discussion pertains to the frameworks surrounding cybersecurity and privacy. The enhancement of trust and security in online services can be achieved by implementing cybersecurity and privacy frameworks that are resilient and tailored to the region’s specific needs. Promoting research and benchmarking endeavors in the Gulf region can provide significant benefits by offering policymakers and businesses useful insights and benchmarks. Further, promoting regional collaboration in policy is crucial for enhancing the development and deployment of online services. Establishing common policies and regulations may be established by fostering cooperation, leading to improved index scores.
Exploring Telecommunication Infrastructure Index Score
The TII score exhibits poor performance in the Gulf countries. Over the years, many countries have consistently received low scores compared to other indicators.
From the TII score in Table 5, several notable factors contributing to the observed pattern have been identified. Data availability and quality pose significant obstacles in effectively measuring and comparing telecommunication infrastructure across Gulf countries due to inconsistencies and limitations in data sources. The presence of diverse regulatory frameworks and policies throughout the region is a significant obstacle to developing a unified approach toward enhancing telecommunications infrastructure. The Gulf region is confronted with escalating cybersecurity concerns that have the potential to compromise the dependability and security of telecommunications networks. The topic of discussion is the allocation of resources toward the development and implementation of fiber optic technology. The expansion and enhancement of fiber optic networks can profoundly impact internet connection and the capacity for data transfer. Further, the use of 5G technology has the potential to enhance network speeds and capacity, hence facilitating innovation and fostering economic growth. The establishment of international collaboration among Gulf countries has the potential to facilitate the harmonization of rules, minimize redundancy, and foster the advancement of cross-border infrastructure development.
Telecom Infrastructure Index (TII) Scores of Gulf Countries from 2016 to 2022.
Comparing HCI Score
Upon examining the HCI score of the Gulf countries, it can be observed that this indicator ranks as the second best-performing measure over the years. The Gulf countries, except for Iraq, have consistently achieved a score of at least 0.50 on this indicator.
Upon examining the HCI score for countries in the Gulf region, as presented in Table 6, some key factors contributing to the pattern observed have been identified. The issue of data quality and consistency is a common obstacle encountered by the Gulf countries, resulting in potential mistakes in HCI rankings and impeding the ability to make meaningful cross-country comparisons. Gender disparities are a prominent concern within the Gulf region, exerting a notable impact on individuals’ opportunities for education and employment. The existing inequities might not be accurately represented in the HCI scores, hence potentially obscuring significant societal issues. The existence of significant migrant labor in the Gulf countries can present challenges in adequately representing the human capital growth of the host country’s residents, as the concept of human capital development normally concentrates on the native population. International collaboration plays a crucial role in the establishment of best practices for HCI measurement, as well as in enhancing the quality and comparability of data. This collaboration involves partnering with international organizations and experts to use their expertise and knowledge in the field. Through such collaboration, the Gulf countries can benefit from exchanging ideas, methodologies, and standards, ultimately leading to improved HCI measurement practices and outcomes.
Human Capital Index (HCI) Score of the Gulf Countries from 2016 to 2022.
In terms of policy implications, the enhancement of HCI scores exploration should prioritize the translation of findings into meaningful policy suggestions, guaranteeing that the analysis contributes to improving human capital development in Gulf countries. The potential improvements might encompass the integration of gender-specific metrics, which would serve to illuminate discrepancies and advancements in gender equality, education, and workforce engagement.
Exploring EPI Score
After analyzing the EPI score, it has been observed that this metric consistently rates as the second highest-performing indicator for countries in the Gulf region. Except for Iraq, these countries have continuously attained a score of at least 0.50 on these criteria.
From the EPI score, as presented in Table 7, several significant factors contributing to the observed patterns have been identified. The phenomenon known as the digital divide refers to the disparities in internet access and digital literacy within the Gulf region. These disparities can potentially create unequal opportunities for e-participation and impact the accuracy of index results. Cultural factors play a significant role in the acceptance of e-participation in the Gulf countries, necessitating the inclusion of these aspects in score assessments. It is crucial to consider cultural norms and values when evaluating the extent to which e-participation is embraced in these regions. Security and privacy concerns are significant factors to examine in the context of the region’s governments. These governments’ potential emphasis on security and surveillance may give rise to a trade-off between e-participation and individual privacy. Consequently, it becomes imperative to consider these considerations when calculating index ratings. Promoting regional collaboration among the Gulf countries can catalyze the standardization of e-participation procedures, hence facilitating the comparability of index scores.
E-Participation Index (EPI) Score for Gulf Countries from 2016 to 2022.
Moreover, the implementation of digital inclusion initiatives, which aim to address the digital divide, boost internet access, and promote digital literacy, has the potential to contribute to attaining more equitable and precise EPI ratings. Incorporating cultural sensitivity in the design and implementation of e-participation projects can enhance participation rates, exerting a beneficial influence on index scores.
The visual representation depicted in Figure 8 illustrates the average weightage of EGDI scores for countries in the Gulf region throughout the preceding 4-year period.
Implications and Recommendations
Based on the discussion above, some implications can be assuaged, and recommendations can be offered. First, the Gulf countries should develop a comprehensive national e-government plan with defined goals, targets, and timetables for e-government development. These initiatives should be linked with worldwide best practices and adjusted to each country’s requirements and priorities. Second, the Gulf governments should actively involve the private sector in e-government development to use their experience, resources, and creativity. Public–private partnerships can aid in the acceleration of e-government efforts, the improvement of service quality, and the advancement of technology. Third, governments should encourage open data efforts to improve transparency, accountability, and citizen participation. Making government data available for free can spur innovation, allow for evidence-based decision-making, and create collaboration among the government, commercial sector, and civil society. Finally, governments should continue to invest in robust digital infrastructure, such as high-speed internet connectivity, data centers, and cloud computing capabilities. This will lay the groundwork for delivering e-government services and future technical improvements.
Conclusion
The findings of the comparative analysis of the EGDI of the Gulf countries indicate significant potential for improvement in the e-government sector. The Gulf countries must recognize that the e-government program is not just about altering governance or offering excellent services to residents but also about being in sync with the globe and competing with other countries in the development process. To achieve progress and comply with global standards, the countries must adhere to international e-government trends. However, the Gulf region lags behind other regions, such as Europe and North America. In other words, despite comprehensive advancements, the Gulf countries face significant tasks and responsibilities in reaching global standards in e-government. By demonstrating constructive intentions, engaging in meticulous planning, and executing policies effectively, the Gulf countries can swiftly progress and remain aligned with global standards. Consequently, it is contended that the issues mentioned above about the deficient EGDI, as expounded upon in this article, ought to be duly acknowledged by the governmental authorities in the Gulf region. Subsequently, it is anticipated that these concerns will prompt the initiation of strategic measures to address this predicament, thereby facilitating the attainment of an elevated standard of governance.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
