Megalithic Period in North Maidan,Karnataka

Introduction

A large number of megalithic monuments were identified for the first time by British officers in the course of their explorations. They not only faithfully recorded details of megaliths and funerary appendage, but some of them like Colonel Meadows Taylor also engaged with scientific investigation and analysis. He undertook excavation of megalithic burials at Jewargi. The evidence for the megalithic period is largely based on the study of burials, which have been found in nearly all parts of the state of Karnataka. As compared to the burial sites, few living sites of megalithic folk have been identified. One of the possible reasons for this situation could be that graves are normally located on inarable lands and have therefore been little disturbed, while the habitation sites that are seen normally in open fields, amidst agricultural lands, have been greatly disturbed due to continuous human activity in the area over the past two millennia. However, as the evidence is chiefly from the megaliths, it is not easy to reconstruct the social and cultural aspects of the megalithic period. Nevertheless, remains at some of the living sites of megalithic folk, such as Brahmagiri, Sanganakal, Maski, Hallur and Piklihal in Karnataka, have help us in recreating a provisional account of the socio-economic life of the people.

Chronology

The chronology of megalithic culture has remained an issue of debate among scholars. Various dates suggested over the years include 700–400 bc (Gordon 1958; Haimendorf 1954); 600 bc onward (Subbarao 1958); and as late as 300 bc–100 ad (Leshnik 1974). Many of these dates have been arrived at not only on the basis of archaeological data but also taking into account various theoretical considerations regarding the authors, origin and spread of megalithic ritual. Two diagnostic traits of megalithic culture, namely iron and black-and-red ware, commence in layers representing the last phase of the preceding Neolithic–Chalcolithic culture. The two features begin to predominate gradually and finally overlap with the cultural traits of the early historic period. This can be clearly seen at sites such as Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal and Hallur (Nagaraju and Gururaja Rao 1979: 321, 324). The C-14 dates from the site of Hallur (district Dharwar) have added a new dimension to the problem of Iron Age chronology. In Karnataka, iron objects first appear in the period of overlap between the Neolithic and the Megalithic periods. This overlap between the Neolithic and Megalithic cultures was found to be quite early at the site of Hallur. Hallur has given three radiocarbon dates from this phase, 1110 ± 108 bc, 1030 ± 103 bc and 955 ± 103 bc. Black-and-red ware were recovered from the pit circle graves at neighbouring Tadakanahalli, suggesting a similarly early date for the graves (Chakrabarty 1992: 80). C-14 dates for the Neolithic culture in the Krishna–Tungabhadra valleys (Sanganakallu) are as follows: early Neolithic, 1550 bc and 1590 bc; uppermost (i.e., late) Neolithic, 1030 bc. The last immediately precedes the overlap of the Neolithic and the Iron Age Megalithic culture, and so it supports the C-14 dates of the overlap phase at Hallur. Neolithic–Megalithic overlap was also noted at other excavated sites such as Sanganakallu (district Bellary), Banahalli (district Kolar), Budhitittu (district Mysore); explored sites such as near Balakundi, near Hirehalu (both in District Bellary), Doda Kadattur; and ancient gold workings of the Champion Reefs in Kendatti, Tekal and Venkatapura (district Kolar). The overlap between the Neolithic and the Megalithic periods was also found at two other sites in Andhra Pradesh—Hullikallu in the Anantpur district and Pagidigutta in the Mahbubnagar district. Perhaps the most important breakthrough in the context of the south Indian megaliths has been the determination of four thermoluminescent dates of the Megalithic black, red and black-and-red pottery at Kumaranahalli. These dates are 1320 bc, 1380–1200 bc, 1130–930 bc and 1440–1100 bc (Chakrabarty 1992: 80). In this context, it is noteworthy that the series of dates obtained for the Neolithic–Chalcolithic culture from various other sites in the Deccan do not go beyond 1000 bc. For instance, Chalcolithic culture in the upper Bhima, as per C-14 dating for the sites in Chandoli and Songaon, seems to have come to an end by about 1000 bc (Chandoli, layer 2, 1330 ± 70 bc, 1300 ± 70 bc, 1240 ± 190 bc) (Sundara 1975: 178). Therefore 1100–1000 bc can be regarded as the date for the beginning of iron-using culture at Hallur. There is a possibility that iron might have been introduced a little earlier as the dates obtained are for layers 4 and 5, whereas iron is known to occur in two earlier layers, that is, 6 and 7. Thus, the introduction of iron might be dated as early as 1200 bc at Hallur. This possibility cannot be ruled out until an alternative chronology is established by firmer evidence (Nagaraju and Gururaja Rao 1979: 324).

It is difficult to fix the date for the end of this phase. There is stratigraphical continuity from early Iron Age phase right up to the beginning of the Christian era (Hallur, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, etc.), with the Iron Age traits continuing and overlapping with the early historic period. However, it is difficult to say with certainty if all the sites with iron and black-and-red ware belong to a period before 400 BC. In most of the south Indian sites, Russet-coated Kaolin painted ware overlaps and succeeds the Iron Age black-and-red ware. Russet-coated Ware had been dated to the early centuries of the Christian era on the basis of its association with Rouletted ware and Roman and Satvahana coins, as witnessed primarily at Arikamedu and Chandravalli (Nagaraju and Gururaja Rao 1979: 326). It is important to note that the dating of the Rouletted ware, one of the criteria for fixing the beginning of early historical period, has been contested. According to Vimala Begley, on the basis of a re-evaluation of Arikamedu data, a date of second century bc can be postulated for the first occurrence of Rouletted ware and therefore for the beginning of the early historical period (Begley 1986: 297). In determining the end of the Megalithic period and the beginning of the early historic period, significance attaches to two C-14 dates from Bainapally (Paiyampally) in the North Arcot district and Dharanikota in the Guntur district. The carbon samples from the post-Megalithic levels from these sites have been dated 310 bc and 400 bc, respectively (Nagaraju and Gururaja Rao 1979: 326). Thus, the megalithic age in Karnataka can be assigned the time bracket approximately 1100–1000 bc to 400–300 bc.

The Geographical Setting

In Karnataka, there is a fundamental division—recognised in both traditional and official nomenclature—between the forested Malnad in the west and the more open country of the Maidan in the east: the transition is in places remarkably abrupt (Spate and Learmonth 1984: 701). Karnataka plateau with its Malnad rim and Maidan character is diversified by the Krishna River and Cauvery River systems, with the rainfall variability resulting in varying patterns of land use and settlements. The vast Maidan, so named after its relatively low and subdued relief, is divided into north and south, largely owing to cultural differentiations—the former is mostly drained by the Krishna and the latter by the Cauvery system. North Maidan (Bidar, Gulbarga, Raichur, Bellary, Dharwar, Bijapur) is a landscape of monotonous seemingly endless plateau covered with rich black cotton soil and of large open treeless fields. The general elevation is about 600 m, with broad flat-bottomed valleys, ranging up to 450 m. The southern half of the area lies on Peninsular gneiss with NNW–SSE belts of Dharwar schists. To the north of Dharwar and Peninsular gneisses, sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone and mudstone of Cuddapah formations are found in a continuous line in the west and Kurnool formations in the east. The remaining area is capped with Deccan trap (Singh 1971: 817, 819). North Maidan is characterised by hot and dry climatic conditions with occasional droughts due to variable rainfall: the forest cover is thin and sparse.

OPEN IN VIEWER Map 1

Megalithic Sites in the Peninsula

Archaeological Assemblage

Evidence for Megalithic period was found at Piklihal in the Raichur district. Excavation at Piklihal was conducted in 1952 by F.R. Allchin. Cairn circles and stone alignments were noted. The pottery reported comprised black-and-red ware, black ware and red ware. The principal shapes were bowl, shallow bowl, deep bowl, conical bowl, small cup or cover, cooking vessel, cooking pot, broad shallow basin, small jar, spherical vessel, large storage jar, and lids. Among the metal objects found were a small copper or bronze bell and two iron-riveted strips. Carnelian, shell and magnesite beads were recovered. Remains of Indian humped cattle, domestic sheep and a carnivore were collected (Allchin 1960).

Extensive vestiges of Megalithic culture were also found at Maski in the Raichur district. The site was excavated by B.K. Thapar in 1954. Five classes of burials were met with. In pit burial, an elliptical pit was dug, with the longer axis north–south, containing, on the pit floor, an extended articulated skeleton along with funerary furnishings like pottery and iron objects. Sometimes, the deposit was covered with stone slabs within the pit. This particular type did not have any lithic demarcation on the surface and was found within the habitation area itself. The second category of burial distinguished itself from the first by the east–west orientation of the longer axis and the fractional nature of the skeletal remains. These too were pit burials within the habitation area and otherwise similar to the first type. The third kind of burials consisted of a cylindrical pit into which was lowered a burial urn. The urn contained fragmentary bones and a few pots along with smaller pots arranged outside. This type belonged to the regular urn burial type without any lithic appendage located outside the habitation. The nearest analogies to these urn burials were excavated at Adichanallur (8°38’N., 77°52’E.) and Amirthamangalam (13°26’N, 80°4’E). In the fourth type of burial, an oblong pit was dug containing an extended articulated skeleton on the pit floor covered over with stone slabs above the level of the deposited funerary pottery, the pit being demarcated on the surface by a circle of unhewn boulders enclosing a rubble packing. The fifth category of burials consisted of a circle of unhewn boulders enclosing a cairn heap at the centre of which was a rectangular pit with a ramp on the east; it contained skeletal remains of the fractional type of burial, with pottery and iron objects. There is evidence of cairn packing. Along with these five classes of burials, menhirs forming parts of rough alignments were also found. The menhir was raised on the ground without any pit and was propped all round by a ring of rubble packing. However, no sepulchral association was noticed. The burials on excavation yielded human remains and funerary goods. These included pottery, stone balls, stone axe, chert core, stones of indeterminate use, tanged arrowhead, iron knife blade, iron dagger, iron axes, iron lances, animal bones, etc.

Excavation brought to light only post-holes with no other evidence for any structure. The pottery from the burials consisted of black-and-red ware and red ware. Black-and-red ware had brightly coloured, polished and burnished surface. The red ware was restricted to large and medium-sized vessels. Pottery was normally plain with only decorations being cord-like finger impressions on the rims of the large jars. Graffiti marks were noted either alone or in groups of two. Out of the nineteen graffiti marks, three were recorded on pottery from the habitational deposits, while the other sixteen were found on pottery from burials. The predominant graffiti marks were: trident-like mark, tree-like mark, bow-like mark, parallel lines, banner-like mark, double loop, two oblique lines, a pair of two marks (parallel line and a V-like incision), and carelessly incised cross. The common shapes found included bowl, vase, miniature vase, tulip-shaped vase, ring stand, jar, lid, shallow dish and basin. Pottery from the habitational deposits comprised black-and-red ware, all-black ware and red-slipped ware. Black-and-red ware and the all-black ware had burnished, polished and, sometimes, shining surfaces. Both wares were made of fine paste and had thin, well-burnt sections. The red-slipped ware was of medium fabric and showed grit and such other tempering materials in the paste. The frequently met shapes included bowl, miniature bowl, bowl-cum-lid, dish, shallow dish, vase, tulip-shaped vase, funnel-shaped lid, lid and basin. Stone objects recorded included axes, asymmetrical flakes, parallel-sided blades, straight-backed blades, pointed backed blades, lunates, crested ridged flakes, cores, pestle, spherical and spheroid balls. Iron objects from the burials included a knife blade or dagger, handle of a lance, an axe and tanged arrowhead. The habitational deposits yielded fragmentary bangle, tanged arrowhead, chisel, ferrule, blade of a dagger, blade of a sickle, axe, nail, etc. Among the copper objects noted was a fragmentary bangle. Two gold objects, one bead and a small indeterminate fragmentary leaf also came to light. A large number of beads, made of carnelian, lapis lazuli, chalcedony, garnet, agate, shell, glass, white paste, horn, terracotta, quartz, jasper, coral, etc., were found along with bangles of shell, glass and a fragmentary bracelet of vitreous paste. Terracotta collected included fragment of a gamesman or the distal end of an ear ornament, cone-shaped stopper, discs and marble. Remains of a domestic ass, zebu or domestic humped cattle, and domestic sheep were reported (Thapar 1957).

In 1965, Z.D. Ansari and M.S. Nagaraja Rao conducted excavation at Sanganakallu in Bellary district. The Megalithic phase occurred as an overlap with the Neolithic phase and was limited to the top 30 cm of the deposit. Megalithic ware was found in very small quantities. It included black-and-red ware, red ware and all-black ware. The black-and-red ware showed burnishing and was marked by a glossy surface. The red ware had a red slip applied on it and then burnished to some extent. A single example of a globular vessel of black-and-red ware painted in white with criss-cross on the shoulder. Some of the red ware sherds had groups of horizontal grooves indented with oblique incised strokes (Ansari and Nagaraja Rao 1969). Another important site to be excavated in 1965 was Hallur in the Dharwar district (now in the Haveri district). Excavation was undertaken by M.S. Nagaraja Rao. The burial types recorded were cairns and dolmenoid cist circles. The pottery found included black-and-red ware, all-black ware and red ware. The black-and-red ware had highly burnished and polished surface. It was normally made of fine paste and was thin in section. The white-painted black-and-red ware had the same fabric as the black-and-red ware. The additional feature was the post-firing white painting drawn on both the interior and exterior surfaces of vessels. The all-black ware was the same as the black-and-red ware, except that the surface of the former was black. It had the same fabric with highly burnished and polished surface and was of thin core. There is evidence also of white-painted all-black ware. Red ware was of medium fabric and not well fired. A slip was applied over the surface and slight polish was observed. The pottery of the period was distinguished by post-firing white paintings drawn on both the interior and exterior surfaces of the vessels. The painted designs included groups of vertical and oblique strokes. Groups of six or seven lines were common. The principal shapes met with were bowl, small deep bowl, carinated bowl, shallow bowl, hemispherical bowl, conical bowl or lid, tulip-shaped bowl, vessel, carinated squat vessel, small globular vessel, small vase, globular jar, shallow dish, shallow platter, etc. Stone objects recorded were axes, adze, chisel, wedges, spheroidal rubber, axe hammer and spheroidal hammer. Iron objects noted were arrowhead, a knife blade or a dagger, spearhead and point. Beads were made of varied types of raw material such as bone, carnelian, terracotta, gold, greenstone and antler. Terracottas found were circular potsherd with a perforation at the centre and an unpierced pottery disc. Remains of cattle, horse, sheep or goat, fowl, swine and dog were discovered. Grains, identified as rice and millet, were collected (Nagaraja Rao 1971).

In the mid-1960s, A. Sundara and H.D. Sankalia excavated four Megalithic burials at Halingali in the Bijapur district (now in district Bagalkot) (I.A.R. 1965–66). Megaliths were of two main types, cist with three rectangular courts at the cardinal points and a passage on the south, the composite plan looking like a Greek cross, covered by a cairn. The other type was a circular cist with passage on the south, covered by a cairn with a double circle or a circle and a rectangle. Megaliths I and II were formed of stone circles measuring, respectively, 5.60 mt and 6 mt in diameter. No cists were found in any of these burials. Megalith III consisted of a cist of the Greek cross type, having pillars along the principal axis. Its enclosing rectangle and the cist measure, respectively, 11 mt square and 6.50 x 4.75 mt. The orthostats of the cist and the rectangle surrounding the cairn were found to be structural walls. Megalith IV was a circular cairn with three short pillars at the periphery on the west, south and east. Fragments of human bones were noted. Pottery, including sherds of megalithic red ware, was found; and iron objects were recorded (I.A.R. 1965–66: 34). In the mid-1960s, A. Sundara excavated two Megalithic burials at Terdal in the Bijapur district (now in the Bagalkot district) (I.A.R. 1965–66). Two main types of Megaliths were found. Megalith I was a circular cist with a passage to the south and three pillars inside the cist, supporting a capstone. It was covered by a cairn surrounded by a circle and a rectangle. Megalith II was a cist of Greek cross type, buried under cairn rectangle. There was no pillar inside the cist. Human skeletal remains were collected. Pottery recovered consisted of black-and-red ware and red ware. The habitation site revealed an occupational deposit of 65 cm. Black-painted red pottery and white-painted grey ware were recorded. Microliths were found, including a fluted core, flakes with crested guiding ridge and parallel-sided blades. Large numbers of charcoal bits were also reported (I.A.R. 1965–66: 34).

At the site of Watgal in the Raichur district, a circular megalith, having two concentric circles of large granite boulders with a possible southern entrance, was found. The diameter of the outer circle was 10.3 mt north–south and 10.9 mt east–west and that of the inner circle 8.25 mt north–south and 8.02 mt east–west (I.A.R. 1988–89: 34).

Discussion

The excavated and explored sites identified so far are located in almost all parts of Karnataka, though there are certain zones, which have relatively larger numbers of sites. North Maidan, comprising the districts of Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Raichur, Bellary and Dharwar, has large number of settlements, thereby showing that man continued to favour this region since Neolithic–Chalcolithic period, which is richly represented here (Map. 1). However, it is South Maidan that includes the districts of Chitradurga, Tumkur, Kolar, Bangalore and Mysore, which has perhaps the most extensive remains of Megalithic culture. Malnad in the Belgaum district, North and South Kanara, Shimoga, Chikmagalur and Coorg had a smaller number of settlements as compared to North and South Maidan. A trend common to North and South Maidan as well as Malnad was the increase in the number of Megalithic sites over the Neolithic–Chalcolithic sites. In North Maidan, Megalithic settlements were situated on river banks as well as on terraces and foothills. A large number of Megalithic sites were found on the banks of the tributaries of the Krishna River, notable among them being the Tungabhadra, Maski nullah, Malaprabha and its tributaries Bennihalla and Jaulhalla. Hallur is on Tungabhadra, while Maski is on Maski nullah. Along with certain excavated sites like Piklihal and Sanganakallu, a large number of explored sites were found on the terraces and at the foot of sandstone and granite hills (Thakur 2018: 85–86). It appears that man showed discrimination in the use of land, in that burial sites were generally located on unarable lands, while habitation sites were normally found in what are now open fields (Nagaraju and Gururaja Rao 1979: 326).

Means of Sustenance

The identification of numerous sites with burial vaults is suggestive of a certain level of population. Some of the burial vaults had remains of more than one person. Moreover, the building of these would have demanded an abundant labour supply. The stones used in the construction of graves were both big and heavy and would have depended upon extensive labour for cutting, transporting and hoisting them. An important factor that seems to have supported a relatively large population was the availability of resources. Though climatic conditions are hot, dry and the rainfall is not adequate, agriculture is an important activity in North Maidan primarily because of the easy availability of water for irrigation and fertile soils (Thakur 2018: 86). Terracing of hills, a feature of settlements of Neolithic period, seems to have provided the logical first step towards the earth and stone embankments, which, from the Iron Age served as surface drainage tanks throughout the areas of impervious granite rocks (Allchin and Allchin 1983: 292). Along with tank irrigation, lift irrigation appears to have been in vogue towards the end of this period (Gururaja Rao 1983: 60). Agriculture during this period seems to have benefitted not only from irrigation but also from the use of a wide range of iron tools and implements, particularly knives, axes and chisels. As the iron tools were more durable and effective vis-à-vis stone, it became possible to work the soil faster and deeper. Furthermore, stone tools such as axes, chisels and pestles were probably still used in agricultural activities. The growing importance of agriculture was reinforced by the discovery of grains like rice and millet from Hallur (Thakur 2018: 86).

Agriculture was supplemented by hunting and domestication of animals. Iron implements such as spearheads, arrowheads and stone sling balls in all probability constituted the equipment for hunting. That hunting was practised during the period is indicated by large number of hunting scenes painted in the rock shelters at sites like Hire-Benkal. These paintings seem to hint at community hunting, including men riding on horseback. Pea-hens, peacocks, stags and antelopes were hunted for food, and tigers were killed to prevent attacks on cattle and community (Sundara 1975: 221). Animals such as cattle, sheep, and goat were domesticated for milk and meat. There is also evidence of fowl from Hallur. Incidentally, the manure provided by these animals must have augmented the productivity of land. Certain animals like the horse, as known from Hallur and from rock paintings found in the Raichur district, as also bulls, might have served as farm animals (Thakur 2018: 87). Furthermore, the evidence for horse hints at the possibility that some of the Megalithic groups may have been relatively more mobile and not as sedentary as others. Interestingly, the evidence for horse was found in the form of a small metacarpal (splint bone) and phalanx at Hallur. These were found in Neolithic–Chalcolithic levels (datable to approximately 1500 bc) and a Megalithic context (Nagaraja Rao 1971: 123). At Sanganakallu, Professor Alur (1969) identified equine teeth from the deposits ascribable to 1500 bc (Nagaraja Rao 1971: 136). A bar snaffle was recovered from a pit burial at Jadigenahalli (District Bangalore) (Leshnik 1971: 149). However, this evidence comes from a settlement, which lies in South Maidan.

We see from the numerous kinds of evidence for it in all remains that agriculture was now the base of the economy, supplemented by cattle domestication. Various crafts had also evolved, notable among which were stone dressing, metal working, pot making, bead manufacture, bangle making, terracotta making and spinning. There was also some development of technology. For instance, at Piklihal, two main techniques were used for making pottery, namely turntable and the dabber and anvil during the Neolithic period. Some of the vessels with flat bases showed that they were rotated upon a flat turntable. Wheel-thrown pottery came into existence in the post-Neolithic period (Allchin 1960: 27). Considering the large number and types of Megalithic monuments, it appears that there must have been a fairly large category of workers who specialised in cutting and removing stones. The discovery of iron tools, implements and weapons from various sites such as Maski, Hallur, Halingali and Piklihal is strong evidence that the Iron Age had well and truly arrived. In fact, there is evidence for ancient iron smelting at places like Kanivehalli, Kudligi, Kamalapura, Kallahalli, near Sri Kumaraswamy Temple near Deogiri on the Ramandurga plateau, near Jambunatha ridge, in the Bellary district, etc. (Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Bellary District 1966: 20). Districts such as Bijapur, Raichur and Bellary in North Maidan are known to be rich in iron ore deposits. In view of the rich sources of the iron ore of high grade in the Western Ghats and coastal regions where iron pebbles can be obtained from the surface of the laterite hills and in Hospet region and the early date for the beginning of the use of iron at Hallur, an independent local origin of primitive iron-smelting activity in North Karnataka is quite possible (Sundara 1975: 178). The iron objects recovered show a strong uniformity in typology without any perceptible evolutionary and datable sequence. The south Indian Megalithic iron objects therefore need to be treated as a distinct assemblage that retained its homogeneity throughout its long duration (Chakrabarty 1992: 80). Gold objects like a bead and a small indeterminate fragmentary leaf from Maski tend to suggest that gold was also explored and prospected by the Megalithic folk. Numerous gold workings have been found at Hutti, which constitutes the chief gold bearing belt of the Raichur Doab (Thapar 1957: 119). Indications of ancient workings for gold are noted near Konganahosur and Chigateri in Harapanahalli taluk and near Ettinahatti in Sandur taluk in Bellary district (Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Bellary District 1966: 22). There is also similar evidence for old workings of gold at sites to the south of Mangalur, at Makan-gavi, to the south of Mavinmatti, to the north of Janapur, to the west of the road to Kardhalli from Naganur, on the eastern flank of Mangalur hill, etc. (Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Gulbarga District 1966: 21–22). The unpierced terracotta discs could be gaming counters, possibly used in hop-scotch game by children: the pierced ones could be either spindle-whorls or toy cartwheels. That an exchange network of certain magnitude might have existed in the region is indicated by the fact that at Maski, otherwise rich in beads, no cores or unfinished beads were found, thus suggesting that there was no local industry at the site though some of the raw material used was within its reach. Six lapis lazuli beads were also discovered. This material is not available locally in India and must have been imported from outside. Important sources of lapis lazuli are in Afghanistan, and near Baikal and in Siberia in the Old World (Thapar 1957: 104–105).

Sociopolitical Formations

The society of the period was characterised by an incipient division of labour. The evidence of different crafts such as stone dressing, metal working, pot making, bead making, bangle making and terracotta making is suggestive of various categories of skilled workers. The discovery of iron weapons such as arrowheads, daggers, swords and spearheads can be taken as an indication of the possible existence of the class of both ironsmiths and warriors. Furthermore, there is evidence of horse from Hallur, and the horse has been depicted in various paintings at Hire Benkal in district Raichur. Though only a small number of gold objects like a bead and an indeterminate fragmentary leaf from Maski and a bead from Hallur have come to light, they are significant for they hint at the presence of affluent sections in society. Perhaps it was for these sections that beads of semi-precious stones were made. On the other hand, bangles of shell and glass and beads of terracotta, glass, shell, bone and antler might have been made for the poorer sections.

It is difficult to decide the racial affinity of Megalithic people as at sites like Brahmagiri (Sarkar 1960), they have been linked with Scytho-Iranian people, whereas, at sites like Yelleswaram and Adichannalur, the picture is not very clear (Guha 1926: 307). The study by Kennedy and Lavisky (1985) has helped in rejecting the racial theory and establishing that there was a mixture of local population by the early Iron Age, and there was no evidence of external immigration (also Vaidya 2014: 732), despite evidence of contacts suggested by similarities with the Vidarbha Megalithic belonging precisely to the same period.

In the long megalithic period, then, there was increasing reliance on agriculture, which must have promoted the growth of population. There was distinct improvement in technology, particularly in the exploitation of metals, as reflected by iron ore–smelting sites. Various crafts suggest that there was division of labour and a gradual development of a category of craft specialists. Furthermore, Megalithic people also seem to have developed an exchange network to satisfy those requirements, which could not be met locally. All these developments provided a backdrop for the early historic period, which has been found overlapping with the Megalithic phase at many sites in Karnataka.