An Early Tombstone and the Office of Kh alīfatu’l Kh ulafā under the Safavids

The Position of Kh alīfat-al-Khulafā in Sufism

In Sufism, the seekers can gradually achieve their goal of pleasing God by going through prescribed stages of conduct and acts of devotion. Among Sūfis in general, the term kh alīfa meant a designated successor or agent of the mystic saint [shaikh]. The Sufi shaikhs used to have many disciples [murīd]. To spread their beliefs, they chose representatives from among their disciples to teach on their behalf, calling them by such terms as sayyid-al-khulafā, kamāl-al-khulafā or kh alīfat-al-khulafā, all indicative of such delegation. The kh ulafā were thus agents or successors of the murshid [teacher, guide] often posted in different areas. The kh alīfat-al-khulafā thus had his own disciples called kh ulafā [agents]. Before the establishment of the Safavid government, the kh alīfat-al-khulafā travelled to various regions on behalf of the Safavid Shaikh [murshid-i kāmil, perfect teacher] to preach according to the teachings of the Shaikh. While collecting oblations, they would also increase the number of the Shaikh’s disciples. Shaikh Œafi-ad-dīn Ardabīlī, the ancestor of the Safavids, who was succeeded by his wife’s father, Shaikh Zahid Gilani, thus operated through the kh ulafā, to gain disciples in both Iran and Anatolia. From this period until the Safavids came to power, the kh alīfat-al-khulafā held, perhaps the most important position or rank in the framework of Safavid Sufism. Its holders possessed religious influence, and, during the time of Shaikh Ḥaidar, they also entered the military field.

Kh alīfat-al-Khulafā in Historical Sources

An example of the authority the kh alīfatu’l khulafā exercised is provided by the historian Khwānd-Amīr:

His majesty, the Shāh [Ismā‘il], was determined to travel and decided to consult with ahl-i ikhtiṣāṣ [the elect] such as Abdi beyk Twachi, Hassan Beykullāh, Kh alīfat-al-khulafā and others in complete privacy. He asked, if because of the large number of corps and the fact that the enemy was in this area, it is not permissible to stay here, which way should we go? ¹

The importance of the position of kh alīfa is also shown by the exploits of Nūr ‘Alī Khalīfa Romelū, who was sent to the Ottoman Empire in 1512. According to the author of Aḥsan al-Tawārīkh, the purpose of his mission was to collect devout Sufis. The author says:

When Nūr ‘Alī Khalīfat arrived, Ottoman (Rūmī) Ṣūfīs and disciples of that territory joined him with three to four thousand horsemen. In the battle that took place, it was Nūr ‘Alī who won. Then, he was settled at Arzanjan. ²

The Position of the Kh alīfat-al-Khulafā in the Safavid Era

Upon the formation of the Safavid government, Shāh Ismā‘il I developed a bureaucratic structure but, in order to maintain and keep alive his position of spiritual guide [murshid-i kāmil] among the Qizilbāsh, he also expanded the scope of functions of the khalīfat-al-khulafā. He was in fact the deputy of the Shāh, the latter being the murshid-i kāmil or perfect preceptor. He was also the Shāh’s deputy, empowered to send representatives to other rulers (under the name of khalīfa and pīr). ³ Through the khalīfat-al-khulafā, the Shāh controlled the Qizilbāsh and the Ṣūfīs who had brought him to power, as well as the old groups of disciples in Anatolia. ⁴

During the reign of Shāh Ismā‘il I, the kh ulafā and khalīfatu’l khulafā thus greatly reinforced the Shah’s authority by gathering murīds from all parts of Iran, Anatolia and Levant. Ismā‘il I in fact was crowned in Tabriz in 1501–02 with the help of these disciples. During the reign of Shāh Ismā‘il I, the position of khalīfatu’l khulafā of Safavid government was conferred on. In the meantime, a very fateful incident caused the relationship between the murshid and murīd to be shaken. In the battle between Shāh Ismā‘il I and the Ottomans at Chaldoran, not only Shāh Ismā‘il’s forces were heavily defeated but Ismā‘il I, who was considered invincible previously, by this defeat lost much of his authority over his spiritual devotees like the khalīfat-al-Khulafā Khādim Beyk.

Early during the reign of Shāh Tahmāsp I (1514–76 AD), the son and successor of Shāh Ismā‘il I, the unrest in the country led to some acts of presumption on the part of some kh ulafā, including Yār Aḥmad, the Khalīfa of Shāmlū, who tried to directly oppose Ḥabībullāh, the Wazir, and Dormish Khān. It should be noted that Yār Aḥmad, the Khalīfa of Shāmlū and ruler of Herat, was also quite influential. However, with the arrival of Shi‘ite scholars from Levant in Iran and the strong tendency for Shi‘ism, as opposed to Sufism during Tahmāsp’s reign, the kh ulafā’s power was much reduced as more and more power in the religious sphere was given to the Shi‘ite clergy.

After this period and the enthronement of several kings until Shāh ‘Abbās the Great came to power, the kh ulafā still enjoyed some power. Under Shāh ‘Abbās (reigned 1587–1629), the importance of kh ulafā and khalīfatu’l khulafā gradually diminished. Shāh ‘Abbās’s mother was killed by the Qizilbāsh at the royal harem, and so he harboured a grudge against them. Accordingly, he proceeded by replacing the Qizilbāsh with a new force called the Shāhsevans [lovers of the king]. Gradually, as the late Safavid period approached, the position of khalīfatu’l khulafā also became a ceremonial one losing all practical importance. ⁵