Abstract
Abstract
This research is based on an extended study of Japanese self-initiated expatriate entrepreneurs (SIEEs) in Asia. Since 2015 the authors have explored various factors that influence SIEEs when setting up enterprises overseas, including the ability to take initiative; support and encouragement from family, a well-defined career anchor and exposure to overseas in the exploration stage of one’s career. An emerging trend is the desire to engage in social development activities, which has seen increasing numbers of Japanese leave well-paid companies at home to work in NGOs in developing countries. An extension of this can be seen in Japanese who choose to become self-initiated expatriate social entrepreneurs. This article focuses specifically on cases collected in Cambodia and attempts to explain how and why Japanese decide to become self-initiated expatriate social entrepreneurs in Cambodia using the concept of mindsets; entrepreneurial, social, sustainable and global. Initial research shows that some of these individuals exemplify the definition of sustainable entrepreneurship as they are creative and question the status quo in order to seek new opportunities for societal improvement (Bornstein, 2007) and have multiple mindsets behind their actions. This research paper shares the context, characteristics, and outcomes of Japanese self-initiated expatriate social entrepreneurs in Cambodia and concludes by suggesting how knowledge of these SIEEs can be used in higher education contexts in Japan to improve entrepreneurship education.
Introduction
This research takes an interdisciplinary and international approach to exploring the mindsets of Japanese self-initiated expatriate entrepreneurs (SIEEs). It seeks to better understand the types of entrepreneurship Japanese working overseas are engaged in and how individuals become successful in these contexts. Little research has been conducted on these individuals with a view to understanding their mindset. As such, this research will focus on Japanese SIEEs working in Southeast Asia, analysing how they came to leave Japan and set up businesses overseas, and the influence of their Japanese education and corporate experience on their current position. The research will also suggest how the findings can be filtered back into the higher education system through the development of engaging and contemporary study materials for leadership, career and entrepreneurship education.
Currently, Japan ranks 30th in the world in terms of entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurship education is seen as an area for improvement. The Ministry of Trade and Industry Study policy article, produced by the Group for the Creation and Development of Start-ups (2008), stated that ‘entrepreneurship education refers to education provided to train people to develop “entrepreneurship” and “entrepreneurial skills” and to be able to “find their own mission, discover themselves what to do with it, and carry it out themselves’ (2008, p. 19).
According to the policy, the skills entrepreneurs are expected to develop are following:
Entrepreneurship Characteristics
1. A spirit of challenge: a forward-looking attitude to try something new and address the challenges that emerge;
2. Ambition: motivations and causes; Passion: zeal;
3. Courage: willingness to expose themselves to certain risk.
Entrepreneurial Skills
1. Ability to dream: imagination, creativity, problem-finding, positive attitudes and optimism;
2. Ability to explain a dream: communication skills, logical thinking, presentation skills, personality and honesty;
3. Ability to realize a dream: skills to collect information, problem-solving, ability to make plans, vitality, judgement/decisiveness, patience.
We hypothesize that Japanese SIEEs exhibit these characteristics and attributes and have these kinds of skills; yet, this has not been explored empirically, through extensive qualitative research, particularly in a context outside Japan. We argue that if we can establish how and why Japanese expatriate entrepreneurs function outside Japan, we can better educate the next generation of Japanese entrepreneurs.
Literature Review and Context
The following literature review will first present working definitions and understandings of social entrepreneurship and sustainable entrepreneurship before introducing the international dimension of SIEEs.
Social Entrepreneurship
The Skoll Foundation defines social entrepreneurs as ‘society’s change agents: creators of innovations that disrupt the status quo and transform our world for the better’. These individuals seek out gaps in society, where individual’s social needs are not being met. They have a strong commitment to help other people, having the right social connections and business skills to make a difference. They have a clear mission and vision to improve a social issue. In this study, we take the narrow definition that states ‘social entrepreneurship is concerned with enterprise for a social purpose and involves building organizations that have the capacity to be both commercially viable and socially constructive’ (Parenson, 2011, p. 940 in Thompson, Mawson & Martin, 2017, p. 7).
Sustainable Entrepreneurship
Sustainable development has been defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without sacrificing the right of future generations to fulfil their needs’ (WCED, 1987, p. 43). Sustainable development requires sustainability innovation, and entrepreneurs who can achieve environmental or social goals with superior products or processes that are successful in the marketplace of mainstream customers. The definition we follow in this article is that of Schaltegger and Wagner (2011, p. 224) who state sustainable entrepreneurship is ‘an innovative, market-oriented and personality driven form of creating economic and societal value by means of break-through environmentally or socially beneficial market innovations’. It encompasses the outcomes of social entrepreneurships. Sustainable entrepreneurs shape society and the main goal of these individuals is creating sustainable development through entrepreneurial activities.
Self-initiated Expatriate Entrepreneurs
In this article, self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) are defined as people who expatriate themselves from their home country without the support of an employing company (Inkson & Richardson, 2010). Research on SIEs has recently increased significantly (Beitin, 2012; Cao, Hirschi & Deller, 2013; Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Doherty, Dickmann & Mills, 2013). As Vaiman, Hasleberger and Vance (2015) state, there is no clear definition of SIEs. The definition criteria by Cerdin and Selmer (2014) goes someway to defining the SIEs described in this article, in that the SIE engages in self-initiated international relocation, but the SIEs in this article choose not to work for an already established company but to set up their own; therefore, they are termed as SIEEs. Research on this aspect in a non-Western context, particularly Japanese, is a new addition to the field and contributes to Al Ariss and Crowley-Henry’s (2013) call for research that is context specific.
Japanese Self-initiated Expatriate Entrepreneurs
Moriguchi (2014) provides a detailed account of the development of Japanese Human Resource Management (HRM) practices from 1914, arguing that it takes time to develop a ‘more diverse and flexible’ Japanese style of HRM, encouraging companies to develop more ‘innovative’ HRM practices (Moriguchi, 2014, p. 74). After the explosion of the bubble economy in 1990, many Japanese companies faced competition from outside Japan. In an attempt to reduce costs, the companies introduced performance-based HRM. These changes indicate a change in direction and have resulted in Japanese employees taking initiative of their own career. It could also be said that dissatisfaction with working environments also prompted a number of Japanese to leave their companies to start companies of their own. An increasing number of Japanese are choosing to leave Japan and start their own companies overseas—these individuals are categorized as SIEEs. These people expatriate themselves from their home country without the support of an employing company (Inkson & Richardson, 2010).
Research on SIEs is succinctly summarized by Doherty (2013) in her review paper on directions for future research in this field. As discussed in her article, there are different levels to analyse SIEs. In our study, the SIEEs are studied at the micro-level, particularly their psychological- and individual-level experiences. Many SEIs have a sense of adventure or desire to travel; sometimes they wish to escape from their current circumstances (Doherty et al., 2011). Inkson and Myers (2003) and Baruch (1995) were also able to confirm various motivations, push and pull factors influencing SIEs. These include economic, social or legal drivers and or an inner sense of adventure. The SIEEs can be classified as explorers, those who wish to see the world, goal seekers, those who have clear goals, and escapers, those who are seeking to escape personal situations (Barry, 1998 in Inkson & Myers, 2003). Research on Japanese SIEEs is an under-explored field. The only research on SIEs relating to Japan is a study by Peltokori and Froese (2009), which identified differences between organizational expatriates (OEs), those who are dispatched by their home companies to international posts, and SIEs. Yokoyama’s (2015, 2016) recent work has opened the field of research to specifically studying the experiences of Japanese entrepreneurs, making this a new area of research in the field of HRM in Japan.
Cambodia as a Destination for Entrepreneurship
It is important to understand the context of Cambodia as a destination for Japanese SIEEs. What makes Cambodia an attractive destination for entrepreneurial activity?
Cambodian Economy
Growth Rate in Cambodia
The export industry in 2015 was worth US$7.87 billion which was about 15.6 per cent increase from the previous year, whereas the import industry was US$0.11642 billion. Cambodia imports various products from other countries such as China and export primarily textile products and shoes.
The price of land in Cambodia has been significantly increasing. In the centre of Phenom Penh, prices of some districts have increased more than 400 times compared to 15 years ago. In accordance with the increase of middle-income families and the wealthy class, consumer spending has also been growing significantly. The AEON shopping mall (a Japanese General Merchandise Store [GMS]) was opened in 2014 in Phenom Penh, with a second store due to be opened in 2018. One of the interesting characteristics of investment to Cambodia is that there are almost no regulations except for buying land, which is restricted. The Cambodian government welcomes any kind of investments from other countries. Thus, it is possible for anyone to start their own business in Cambodia, as long as they have some base money and willingness for enterprise.
Cambodia became a member of ASEAN in 2016. Initially, many companies made direct investments in the textile industry; however, it is predicted that in the long term there will be competition with other ASEAN countries and these products alone will no longer be as lucrative a business as they once were. Thus, to compete with other ASEAN countries, human resource development through skills training and/or higher education is seen as a particular growth area.
Human Resources in Cambodia
The total population of Cambodia is 15 million and 65 per cent of the total population are less than 30 years old. The minimum wage is only applicable to the labour force working in the garment, textile and shoe industries. Yet, their minimum wage, per month, has been increasing steadily, from US$140 in 2016 to US$153 in 2017. The low labour cost is attractive to outside investors in Cambodia but the quality of labour is considered low compared with that in neighbouring countries. However, compared with the other ASEAN countries, there are a significant number of Cambodians who speak English (and other languages such as Japanese) and these workers are paid over double for their ability (Japan External Trade Organization [JETRO], 2016). Currently, the only institution offering programmes in engineering is the Royal Phenom Penh University, which established an engineering department 2015, and students are yet to graduate. Besides, there are not sufficient teaching staff in engineering fields to meet the technical requirements at the global level. There are many factories in the textile industry in Cambodia but there are not many factories, which can produce products using machines. Thus, skill development programmes have been restricted to everyday fields such as mechanics, bike repairs and the skills for repairing air conditioning units, and so on and these are often provided with major assistance from outside NGOs.
Contextual Issues in Cambodia
Despite the country being open to direct foreign investment, there are a number of problems that can hamper entrepreneurial efforts. First, the electricity supply is unstable and power rates are considered extremely expensive. Second, as mentioned in the previous section, there is a significant shortage of skilled labour. Due of the internal war in the 1970s and the killing of highly educated people, there has been shortage of specialists and labour at a high technical level. At present, the literacy rate is 78.4 per cent. Third, public administration in Cambodia is often considered to have a lack of transparency. There is a significant level of corruption and bribery is a commonplace. Finally, the infrastructure is insufficient in some areas. Major streets have been asphalted but the majority of roads in the country are in poor condition. These issues can be surmountable by determined entrepreneurs but they should be taken into consideration in this context.
Theoretical Framework
The research is seeking to explore and explain the mindset attributes of Japanese SIEEs and what connections we can draw between the concepts of internationalization, social enterprise and sustainability.
Mindsets and Attributes
The American Heritage Dictionary (2016) defines a mindset as, ‘a fixed mental attitude or disposition that predetermines a person’s responses to and interpretations of situations or an inclination or a habit’. In her seminal work, Dweck (2006) describes two types of mindset: a fixed mindset and a growth mindset. In the fixed mindset, people believe their basic qualities are fixed traits while in the growth mindset individuals believe their abilities can be developed through dedication. Common sense suggests that an entrepreneur would likely have a growth mindset and a resilience that is necessary for success.
Entrepreneurial Mindset
Numerous scholars have defined an entrepreneurial mindset (EM) (Krueger, 2000; McGrath & McMillan, 2000; McMullen & Shepherd, 2006). McGrath and MacMillan (2000) provide five characteristics of the EM: (a) the passionate seeking of new opportunities; (b) the enormously disciplined pursuit of opportunities; (c) the pursuit of only the best opportunities instead of chasing after every option; (d) the focus on adaptive execution; and (e) the engagement of energies of everyone in one’s domain. Ireland, Hitt and Sirmon (2009) state that EM is the ability to recognize entrepreneurial opportunities, have a sense of alertness, logic to deal with uncertainties, and an entrepreneurial framework within one’s mind.
Etemad (2004) summarized highlights of selected entrepreneurial characteristics (Table 2). These help to provide a contextual view of the entrepreneur and how he/she is embedded in his/her environment in addition to the impact of his/her upbringing.
Entrepreneurial Characteristics
Global Mindset
Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) in their seminal work on cultivating a global mindset define a global mindset as one that combines an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with a propensity and ability to synthesize across this diversity. If we explore work on global mindset with international management, Levy et al. in Hitt, Javidan and Steers (2007) define global mindset as a ‘highly complex cognitive structure distinguished by an openness to and expression of multiple cultural and strategic realities on both global and local levels and the cognitive capacity to moderate and assimilate across this diversity’ (p. 217). Javidan’s Global Mindset Inventory measures attributes in three areas: intellectual capital, psychological capital and social capital. Global intellectual capital relates to cognitive complexity, cosmopolitan outlook and the ability to be global business savvy. Psychological capital relates to a passion for diversity, a sense and quest for adventure and self-assurance. While a global social capital is the propensity to have intercultural empathy, interpersonal impact and diplomacy. It would be expected that SIEEs would exhibit strong self-efficacy and confidence when operating in a global cross-cultural context and the ability to deal with failure in a cross-border context (Figure 1).
Even though research on individual antecedents of individual attributes has been largely inconclusive, there remains an interest in attempting to uncover such constructs (Stewart & Roth, 2001).
Social Mindset
Bornstein (2007) conducted extensive research on the social mindset of social entrepreneurs in different contexts. He concluded with six characteristics that are exhibited by extremely successful social entrepreneurs: (a) willingness to self-correct; (b) willingness to share credit; (c) willingness to break free of established structures; (d) willingness to cross-disciplinary boundaries; (e) willingness to work quietly; and (f) strong ethical impetus.
His research found that ‘one of the primary functions of the social entrepreneur is to serve as a kind of social alchemist: to create new social compounds; to gather people’s ideas, experiences, skills, and resources in configurations that society is not naturally aligned to produce’ (p. 236) and that most have a strong desire to restore the equilibrium of justice in society and to solve societal problems.
Sustainability Mindset
The essence of sustainability is to achieve and improve the quality of life for all. It is concerned with social equity, sufficiency and opportunity, engagement and democracy, communication and the cooperation between individuals and organizations. Sustainability and having business leaders with a sustainability mindset will help the development of not only the population and resources on this planet, but also technology (Mezher, 2011). Having a sustainability mindset helps others to change their behaviour (Mezher, 2011). Therefore, it is vitally important in the twenty-first century for CEOs to have a sustainability mindset that they can use to influence the direction of their organization.
Research Questions
Initial research conducted by the authors sought to better understand the push and pull factors of Japanese SIEEs (Yokoyama, 2016); yet, when we began research in Cambodia, we were quick to discover that compared with the individuals we had interviewed in Thailand, more of these entrepreneurs were engaged in social enterprises and a greater number had an interest in and better understanding of sustainability. We questioned what makes these entrepreneurs act in the ways that they do? The following research questions underpinned this research:
1. What mindset attributes do Japanese SIEEs in Cambodia exhibit and what can we learn from them about internationalization, social entrepreneurship and sustainability? 2. What can we learn about education for entrepreneurship through the cases of Japanese SIEEs?
Methods and Approach
Epistemological Position
This research is set in a constructionist paradigm that is conceptualized as having aspects of both the post-positivist and interpretivist paradigms—ontological critical realism with epistemological subjectivism. In this study, meaning is created through an interaction of the interpreter and the interpreted (Crotty, 1998). The findings are produced by the interaction between the interpreter and the interpreted as situated in society; thus knowledge of the observed, in this case the Japanese SIEEs, is constructed rather than discovered. It follows Charmaz’s (2006) view of a social constructionist approach, which allows the researcher to address why questions, such as why do Japanese become SIEEs while preserving the complexity of social life? We accept, as does Charmaz (2006), that (a) reality is multiple, processual and constructed—but constructed under particular conditions; (b) the research process emerges from interaction; (c) it takes into account the researcher’s positionality as well as that of the research participants; (d) the researcher and researched co-construct the data—data are a product of the research process, not simply observed objects of it. Researchers are part of the research situation, and their positions, privileges, perspectives and interactions affect it (Charmaz, 2006, p. 6).
Case Studies and Narrative Research
Through in-depth interviews, each case participants’ narratives form the basis of data. In addition to being personal stories, the stories also reflect the cultural experiences and social context as they are conducted through dialogues between the researcher and the participant. These narratives allow the researchers to describe patterns and themes in the individual’s life and we can see the way the subject looks at him/herself and others. In particular, in this context, a narrative can help us to better understand how the worker applies ‘tacit’ or experiential knowledge to a practice situation of being an SIEE.
Data Collection and Analysis
Interviews
Research interviews followed Kvale’s criteria (1996, p. 145) for an ‘ideal’ interview being: the extent of spontaneous, rich, specific and relevant answers from the interviewee; the shorter the interviewers’ answers and the longer the subjects answers the better; the degree to which the interviewer follows up and clarifies the meanings of the relevant aspects of the answers; the interviewer attempts to verify his or her interpretations of the subject’s answers in the course of the interview. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for accuracy and follow-up interviews were conducted when necessary. All respondents were contacted for clarification and acceptance of interview records.
Interviews were conducted in Cambodia in 2016 with cooperation from the Tokyo Office of the Association of Japanese Overseas Entrepreneurs. Through snowball sampling and introductions interviews were conducted in 25–27 February 2017 and follow-up interviews in 2–5 June 2017.
Coding
Data-led Codes
The following section will provide an overview of the six initial cases.
Overview of Cases
Case A
Career Path Case A
HP
OS! HP ⌈www.os-fcp.com⌋
Case B
Career Path Case B
HP
SANCHA HP ⌈http://bagelsancha.com⌋
Case C
Career Path Case C
HP
AMAZING CAMBODIA, ⌈HP http://amazing-cambodia.com/⌋
Dream Girls Projects, HP ⌈https://www.dreamgirlsproject.com/⌋
Case D
Career Path Case D
HP
Case E
Career Path Case E
HP
A2A Town (Cambodia) Co., Ltd, HP ⌈http://asiato.asia/⌋
Kirirom HP ⌈http://kit.vkirirom.com/⌋
Case F
Career Path Case F
HP
Right Smart: HP ⌈http://risma.biz/indexJP.html⌋
The narratives of the cases above were coded and analysed and the following section will present the findings of the initial analysis.
Findings
Based on the analysis of the cases, we argue that the Japanese SIEEs in Cambodia in this study can be categorized into three typologies: SIEEs, SIESEs and Hi-SISEs, with various attributes being exhibited in each case. Table 9 provides examples of the attributes associated with each type. We argue that there are certain mindset attributes that the individuals have to help develop their propensity towards becoming an entrepreneur who works overseas, in a social development capacity.
Typologies and Attributes of Japanese Entrepreneurs in Cambodia
Case E
Case E exhibited all the attributes associated with being a global SIEE coupled with a social justice, community and sustainability mindset. In terms of entrepreneurial characteristics, he shows an extremely high degree of entrepreneurial personality in that he has a high need for achievement; risk taker, low need for conformity and a high sense of self-esteem. These were evident in what he deemed to be his first risk-taking experience—dropping out of his PhD programme at a highly prestigious university. In addition, his failure to become a member of the Assembly in the Tokyo Metropolitan Government did not deter his efforts to be a high achiever and only spurred him on to further develop his entrepreneurial behaviours.
In Case E’s first corporate position in Japan, he was sent to Chicago for 3 weeks to engage in professional development and orientation meetings with colleagues from around the world. He stated that this was his first opportunity to engage in the international community and despite having poor language communication skills he quickly was able to develop a global orientation. After his failed political bid, he set up a technology company which he subsequently sold in the dotcom bubble, allowing him to retire at 42. Again, exposure to overseas, this time at the World Entrepreneur Organization, encouraged him to develop his global mindset. He says that after he had a ‘sense of crisis about globalization’ he went about making major changes to his life. Exemplifying high intellectual capital and a high degree of cognitive complexity, he developed a greater cosmopolitan outlook and a passion for diversity. In a quest for adventure, he made the solo decision to move his entire family to Singapore in order for them to become a ‘global family’. He took 2 years seeking out business opportunities in ASEAN countries. With his newly developed global mindset and strong set of entrepreneurial behaviours and attributes, such as proactivity, planning and a strong entrepreneurial orientation, he chose Cambodia. His vision was to develop a business resort that combines real-estate business with education and information technology. Taking 10,000 hectares of land in rural Cambodia, with a population of zero, he developed a tourism resort, business retreat and university. The university was granted official status by the Cambodian Ministry of the Environment. Since the resort was established, it has brought 12,000 people to the once derelict area. The university is full-board and tuition is funded by sponsorship. With 1 billion yen in start-up funds and a number of shareholders, Case E still maintains a 60 per cent stake in his company, thus allowing him to be the primary visionary behind the endeavour. His strong vision for success, direction, knowledge of financing, ability to plan and his social and economic dynamism has allowed the business to flourish.
Case E’s philosophies and believes exemplify not only his entrepreneurial behaviours but also his understanding of social justice and sustainability. He stated that it is important to ‘maximize experience based on the definition of happiness not being monetized’. Additionally, his self-assurance and confidence can be most clearly seen through his career anchor—‘I can do it if I want to do it, just because others are doing it, it doesn’t mean I can’t do it. When I do it, I must make my surroundings happy when I start.’ Case E is keen to share his vision to those around him to make the world a better place. Despite having a mentor in politics, he says that he did not consult with others about his entrepreneurial decisions at first, yet now Entrepreneur Organization (EO) members and his shareholders and friends he has through Facebook teach him things. He maintains 60 per cent of his company to fulfil his vision.
He shows how a global mindset and knowledge of internationalization, coupled with a social conscious and knowledge of sustainability, can help individuals and his own entrepreneurial endeavours prosper. He is constantly seeking ways to break free of established structures and cross-disciplinary boundaries in combining IT, education and tourism. Case E has a strong ethical impetus to improve the lives of Cambodians and has a clear vision and mission to address social issues of inequality.
Case F
Similar to Case E, Case F best exemplifies a high-impact SIESE. He showed a strong quest for adventure in his decision to take paid vacation and visit slums in Thailand. This initial experience gave him an international orientation and desire to make an interpersonal impact on society. He chose to engage in support work for Non-profit organizations (NPOs) and engaged in vocational training projects. Throughout this time his intercultural empathy developed and he developed a stronger global mindset. His work as a director coupled with his vision to set up his own company exemplifies his ability to be globally business savvy yet frustrations he encountered with his bosses and investors points to some interpersonal issues. He stated that he was highly frustrated when working with others who did not share his ideals and ethics and through this experience he developed a strong sense of self-assurance to go alone. His desire to work with more likeminded people, coupled with his awareness of financing and loans systems allowed him to develop strong entrepreneurial processes and a high awareness of entrepreneurial outcomes. Case F exhibited strong diplomacy skills, a high degree of interpersonal impact and interpersonal empathy through his social networks. By describing his mentor as ‘like a brother’, engaging in work and relations with his actual brother-in-law, and through working with his networks within the Ministry of the Environment of Cambodia, he exemplifies an individual who has developed a high degree of social capital. Case F’s career anchor is ‘priority is the most important, and if you do not make a mistake in this choice you will succeed’—this shows his strong entrepreneurial behaviours, in that he shows commitment; pro-activity and planning; and a keen sense of observation. He admitted that it is difficult to acquire new skills but he interacted with various people as part of his own self-development and stated that he was learning from such experiences. In the future, he needs to train his Cambodian staff to learn how to cope with their business in accordance with future changes to the business laws within the government and also train Cambodian middle managers. In addition, he wishes to nurture his staff on how to deal with Japanese businesses and developing Japanese-ready staff.
Both Cases E and F are considered high-impact social entrepreneurs as they have created companies that are ventures ‘driven by stakeholders that [are] committed to actively seeking opportunities and making significant, quantifiable social impacts’ (Thompson et al., 2017, p. xx). They are unique in the ‘extent of their ambition, vision and creativity’.
Discussion
Understanding the Mindset of SIEEs
We can see through this study that when a global mindset (an awareness of internationalization), a social mindset and a sustainability mindset are combined, individuals can become hi-impact SIEEs (Figure 2). The mindset attributes of these individuals are a combination of those outlined by Javidad (2007) and Etemad (2004), in conjunction with Bornstein’s attributes of social mindset, and research on sustainability. These entrepreneurs exhibit traits such as a belief in their own self-efficacy and an entrepreneurial personality (Hartigan, 2006). Through Cases E and F and to some extent C, we can see that the individuals have high-impact social networks and are rich in social capital; they are action-orientated and have different measures of connectivity; formal ties, informal ties and intermediary ties which they use to best effect.
By introducing university students and potential entrepreneurs to the concept of mindsets is a useful way to educate for entrepreneurship. We argue that awareness raising of what it takes to become a Hi-SIESE is one key to encouraging young Japanese to explore entrepreneurship opportunities. We suggest that these cases can and will form the basis of teaching materials that follow an active learning pedagogy. Active learning instructional strategies include a wide range of activities that share the common element of involving students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In some instances, case teaching can be the antithesis of entrepreneurial learning unless it is used as a means for stimulating wider thinking and conceptualization of issues. The cases and activities we can create using these cases will engage students’ higher-order thinking skills and critical reasoning. Using the narratives of these cases, they will serve as the basis for classroom discussion—testing the ability of students to apply the concepts they have learned to a real-world situation. By asking the students to put themselves in the shoes of the cases at different stages of his/her career, the students are able to discuss possible next steps and actions to visualize their possible selves. In the future, we hope to develop bilingual teaching materials for use in undergraduate and graduate classes. Giving students the opportunity to visualize themselves as an entrepreneur will help the students to see alternative paths to future employment.
Implications for Career Education in Japan
It is intended for this research to start a debate on both entrepreneurship education and career education in Japan. Current entrepreneurship education in Japan is defined as education provided to train people to develop entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills enabling individuals to ‘find their own mission, discover themselves what to do with it, and carry it out themselves’ (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry [METI], 2009). The government lists four points that need to be addressed for entrepreneurship education to be more successful in Japan:
1. the purpose of entrepreneurship education is often unclear; 2. there must be a link between theory and practice; 3. universities are not taking full advantage of external human resources, resulting in weak relationships with industry; 4. cooperation with external organizations of the region is not sufficiently developed.
Birchley and McCasland (2017) add that there is an additional issue to be addressed: how to develop entrepreneurs that can function outside Japan. Entrepreneurs need to develop networks and partnerships both internally and externally. They argue that there is a lack of entrepreneurial role models and mentors for young people, specifically women; a lack of confidence in foreign language ability to work outside Japan; and a lack of appropriate education for entrepreneurship (Birchley & McCasland, 2017). Entrepreneurship education and career education can be enhanced using the cases developed in this research to explore the concepts of mindsets, imagined selves and international posture. By creating engaging teaching materials with these real-world examples that align with active learning pedagogies, students may be able to better visualize themselves as SIEEs in their future. In addition, career education should look beyond promoting the traditional structure of finding a job for life; moving towards helping students to better understand their skill sets, to recognize their mindsets and to discuss the negative and positive angles of risk-taking.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are that the sample number of cases is small and it is restricted to Cambodia. Since the start of this research, further research has been conducted in Myanmar. Now connections have been made, there is also the case for mixed methods research and potential to conduct quantitative research on mindsets, such as using mindset inventories on the individuals could be a possible future path of research.
Conclusion
A mindset is ‘a predisposition to see the world in a particular way [and] to perceive and reason in certain ways’ (Waite, 2014, p. 32). We argue that to be a successful HI-SIESE, it is important to have not only an EM but also a global mindset, social mindset and sustainability mindset. There will surely be an increased demand for those individuals who can bring their ideas to fruition as these mindsets will help them to verbalize an argument which leads to selecting ‘issues, decisions, knowledge areas and processes’ (Tollin & Vej, 2012, p. 626) essential for entrepreneurial success, particularly in developing areas of Asia.