The Missional Singing of the Psalms in Islamic Contexts

The Psalms and Islam: A forgotten common heritage of divine song

Although not widely known, the importance of the Psalms for the study of the Qur’an has long been recognized in qur’anic scholarship. ³ From the seventh through the fifteenth centuries, Muslim sources only sporadically mention biblical references, but in modern Islamic scholarship some biblical parallels and influence exist. For instance, in The Qur’ān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qur’ānic Milieu, Angelika Neuwirth discusses the significance of the Psalms in her exploration of the early Meccan suras (chapters) of the Qur’an. ⁴ She highlights numerous structural parallels and forms of intertextuality between the Psalms and these Meccan suras. Her findings provide a historical reference for the Psalms being studied by Muslim scholars, which can serve as common ground in Muslim-Christian engagement. Also, two works by David Vishanoff are especially worthy of notice concerning psalmic influence in the Qur’an and Muslim thought. ⁵

Several discussions and theological dialogues centered on particular psalmic texts have been a part of the history of Christian-Muslim relations. ⁶ Regarding dialogue on the Book of Psalms, David Irving discusses an encounter in 1602 between James Lancaster (1554–1618) and a Muslim sultan in Sumatra (told in “Psalms of David Known to the Muhumatens”). ⁷ Another instance is the Bet Hale Disputation (ca. 720 CE), an early manuscript that shows how Muslims understood Psalm 37:29. It records the conversation between a Muslim commander (emir) and a Christian monk about Qur’an 21:105, which is a literal quotation of Psalm 37:29: “And we have decreed in the Book of Psalms [zabūr]—after admonition [dhikr]— that the righteous shall inherit the earth.” The emir asserts that the verse is of paramount importance to the theology of the Qur’an, for it is reiterated in other qur’anic verses that connect inheritance and righteousness with one another. ⁸

Walid Saleh also discusses the use of psalmic material in the Qur’an and in the Islamic religious imagination. He notes numerous biblical psalms in al-Biqa‘i’s fifteenth-century commentary on the Qur’an. The work of al-Biqa‘i (1406–80) provided the ground for Muslim-Christian textual engagement and laid a foundation for using the Bible and the Qur’an for cross-religious scriptural exposition. ⁹ These historical foundations have paved the way for strong contemporary interreligious dialogue rooted in the Psalms.

Psalms: The prophetic pathway

In the past few decades, Christian-Muslim scriptural engagement has made great progress from polemic to peaceful dialogue through the exploration of parallel passages in the Psalms and the Qur’an. ¹⁰ Scholars are finding numerous instances where qur’anic material draws upon or resembles passages in the Psalms. ¹¹ A recent translation of the Qur’an builds bridges between it and the holy books of the other monotheistic religions. It does so by the generous use of footnotes, which show parallel passages and similarities between the Qur’an and the Bible. ¹²

It is therefore clear that scriptural engagement between Muslims and Christians in theological debate has been a common phenomenon, even in the midst of militant confrontation, and that a focus on the Psalms is increasing. It is still unclear what the Qur’an was attempting to achieve by using the Psalms and what should be made of the textual similarities. Further investigation and conversation with Muslim scholars and exegetes is necessary if we are to uncover the motivation of the qur’anic references to the Psalms.

It is clear, however, that the Qur’an supports the value of the Psalms in the practice of one’s personal faith. To believe in Allah’s revealed books, which include the Psalms of David (al-Zabur), is the third belief of Islam’s Eman-e-Mufassal. ¹³ The Qur’an mentions the tripartite division of the Judeo-Christian Scriptures as al-Tawrah (the Torah), al-Zabur (the Psalms), and al-Injil (the New Testament). In addition, we should note that the Davidic tradition, including the Psalms, is revered equally in the three Abrahamic faiths, although in Islamic practice they are eclipsed in common life because of the importance of the Qur’an. Yet all 114 suras of the Qur’an begin with “Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim” (In the name of Allah, the most gracious and merciful), an opening invocation that quotes Zabur/Psalms 103:8 and 145:8. The second sura, the longest in the Qur’an, contains more than thirty-five Zabur citations. Besides the presence of the Psalms in the Qur’an and in Islamic belief, Islamic religious leaders have even written psalms themselves (often in the form of du‘a, or private prayer).

With this background of the overlapping of Zabur/Psalms in the Muslim and Christian Scriptures, we can now explore specifically the convergences evident in the Qur’an and the Psalms in their status as revelation, as well as in their practice in recitation and ritual.

Revelation: The Psalms and kalam

The idea of uninterrupted revelation in the form of a book transmitted through a prophet appears with force and clarity in the Qur’an. The Qur’an states: “Truly it is noble Recitation [qur’an] in a hidden book [kitab maknun], which none [may] touch except the purified—a revelation [tanzil] from the Lord of all beings” (56:77–80). In the qur’anic view, the leitmotiv of salvation history consists in God having sent to the nation a prophet (nabi; pl. anbaya) or apostle (rasul; pl. rusul) to lead its people aright. According to Islamic belief, God has sent 124,000 prophets, but only 4 ranked as messengers and were gifted with holy books: Moses with the Torah, David with the Zabur, Jesus with the Injil, and Muhammad with the Qur’an. In the course of explaining the difference between nabi and rasul, Ghamidi said that in the beginning, the Torah came in the form of a revelation. It was then collected and compiled, just as later the Qur’an was compiled. ¹⁴ In between the Torah and the Qur’an, we have the Psalms. Of all the revelations that have been sent by the Almighty, the Psalms have the extraordinary status of being an eternal, sacred spring of expression of the most authentic relationship with God.

From the qur’anic perspective, besides the Scriptures mentioned above, other prophets may have been given written revelation from God. Leaving aside the distinction between direct revelation from God (called tanzil), as in the Qur’an, and inspired words from God (called ilham), the question of revelation and inspiration is integral to understanding the status of Psalms in Islamic thinking. Muslims believe not only in the Qur’an but also in the Torah, the Psalms of David (Dā’ūd), the Gospels of Jesus, and other works as links in the chain of divine revelation that each contain the same basic message. However, the qur’anic understanding of the Zabur is not as one whole book like Torah to Moses but as revealed to David piecemeal (2:53; 54:43). Another sura clarifies that Zabur is a piece of inspiration that has been given to David: “I [Allah] have written in Zabur” (21:105). Zabur were revealed (nazul) to Hazrat Daud (“hazrat” is a term of respect). According to a hadith, Allah revealed (nazul) 104 books to various prophets.

The Qur’an, however, confirms the authenticity of the Psalms as the word of God. One Islamic school substantiates the divine authenticity of the Psalms by pointing to a letter issued by Jamia Binoria, a prominent Islamic school in Karachi. Furthermore, as Ghamidi notes, “When the Quran mentions its history, it says specifically ‘And to David we gave the Psalms’ (Q. 4:163).” ¹⁵ The qur’anic reference is explicitly clear about the divine origin of the Zabur as a book that was given to David as a prophet and a messenger.

Recitation and psalms

Organic Islamic art is voice-centric, creating an easy link to traditional psalmic expressions. The Qur’an was at first a “recitation” and only later a written or printed book. ¹⁶ The hadith of the Prophet states: “God has said ‘Whoever is so absorbed in reciting the Qur’an that he is distracted from praying to Me and asking [things] of Me, him I shall give the best reward [that is granted to] those who are grateful.’” and “He who does not recite the Qur’an melodiously is not one of us.” The style of Arabic in which the Qur’an is written is rhymed prose. The very name “al-Qur’an” (the reciting, or the recitation) underscores the fact that the qur’anic revelations were initially wholly oral texts intended to be rehearsed and recited, first by Muhammad, then by the faithful. In Muslim piety, the Qur’an is the recitation given by God to all of his worshipers to recite, as Qur’an 96:1–3 suggests. Such chanting or reciting serves as a “reminder” (dhikr) and a “criterion” (furqan) for human beings, who are by nature forgetful. Even after its codification as a single, composite book of revelations, the Qur’an has played its central role in Muslim piety and practice as a recited text.

The Qur’an strongly affirms that Allah (God) is the same God worshiped by faithful Christians, Jews, and Muslims (10:90; 29:46; 73:9). It assumes that the word qur’an is a common philological term derived from Judeo-Christian use. ¹⁷ Before the arrival of Islam, Syriac- and Arabic-speaking Christians were using the similar term qery’ana (lection or reading) to refer to the verbal, liturgical reading from the lectionary. These Arabic and Syriac terms are similar to rabbinic and later Jewish use of the Hebrew cognates qer’ia and miqra’, which refer to the respectful recitation of Scripture. ¹⁸ Miqra’ is also used as a Talmudic expression for the whole Bible, one that applies both to the vocal manner of study and the public reading of the Scripture in the Jewish liturgy.

In the past fourteen centuries, al-Kitab has been a book learned, read, and passed on by vocal repetition and memorization. We may say, then, that the Qur’an and the Psalms have equal status as recited words of divine origin. Recitation or cantillation of the Qur’an is the most popular activity in Muslim piety, being carried out even in recitation competitions. Hafiz-Quran (those who can recite the Qur’an from memory) and qari (reciters and chanters) are held in great esteem in the Muslim world.

It should be noted, regarding recitation, that the sacredness of Arabic in Islam hinders the use of vernacular hymns. Ghamidi is open to reciting prayers or supplications in any language, but he proposes that the first sura (Fatiha, “the opener”) and some parts of the Qur’an should be recited only in Arabic. ¹⁹ The recitation of Arabic psalmic texts can fit within this framework.

Recitation of the Quran is not just a vocal aesthetic art but a holistic presentation of Islamic spirit. The musical and acoustic characterization involves the emotive pathos of the reciter. ²⁰ The Psalms, in regard to chanting, singing, and the human voice, connect deeply with Islamic practices regarding Islamic vocal art. In the early church, monastic orders were more accustomed to the audible presence of the biblical word than they were to the reading of written Scripture. We find substantial references to the memorization of Scripture, to recitation/meditation as a major preoccupation in its own right, and to liturgical recitation, including both communal worship and funeral rites, of the chanting of the Psalms and other scriptural passages. ²¹ This parallel understanding represents a common heritage, a basis for fostering peacebuilding in religious harmony and interfaith dialogue.

Rituals: Liturgical and communal life

A Muslim is a person who “pronounces the name of the Lord and prays” (Q. 87:15). How, then, do the psalmic prayers influence or relate to liturgical practices in Islam? Muslim and Christian scholars agree that the five daily prayers (salat) of Muslims are a continuation of Jewish prayer practice. ²² The Arabic term salat (related to the verb salla, ”to bow”) was a part of Judeo-Christian traditional prayer. ‘Aqama’l-salat, which means “to perform the prayer,” was apparently borrowed from the Syrian church while Muhammad was still in Mecca. ²³ Although the Hebrew Scriptures mention morning and evening prayers (Exod. 29:39; Num. 28:4), Judaism developed three prayers a day based on the pattern of (Ps. 55:17; Dan. 6:10), as is seen in the Jerusalem Talmud. Christian monks, however, prayed seven times a day based on the words of Psalm 119:164. ²⁴ The Qur’an does not specifically mention the five daily prayers but mentions a variety of prayer times (2:238–39; 17:78; 20:130; 24:58). Among the monotheistic faiths, Islamic tradition took a middle position, instituting prayer five times a day.

The Islamic practice of salat has been viewed as a religious duty (farz) that provides cleansing of heart and body. The distinction between corporate liturgical worship (salat) and personal prayer (du‘a) is clear in both Muslim and Christian traditions. The concept of acquiring merit through prayer is strong in Islamic thought, both in tradition and in contemporary practice. According to Quran 4:43/46 the function of ablution is purity from defilement. The Psalms likewise associate ablution with purity of heart (Ps. 24:3–4; Isa. 1:16–18). Moreover, the Muslim postures of standing, prostrating, and kneeling during salat are biblical forms (Q. 22:26), adopted from the Jewish tefillah prayer of amida (standing). In particular, lifting up hands is a psalmic posture (Pss. 28:2; 134:2; 1 Tim. 2:8). We can list the following parallels in content between the Islamic salat and the Psalms:

Besides the five-times-a-day salat, the vocal presence of the Qur’an in the Muslim community is felt more keenly and is more pervasive than even ritual, devotional, and public life. From birth to death, virtually every action a Muslim makes is accompanied by the spoken words of the Qur’an. For example, the qur’anic word “bismillah,” meaning “in the name of God,” or the full version, “bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim,” is spoken before countless daily acts, such as drinking or eating. Muslims know this phrase by heart and recite it also at every formal occasion, such as the signing of a wedding contract, the closing of an agreement, or prayer at a tomb. In addition, sura 112 (“Unity”) is often recited as a litany of praise. Suras 113 and 114 (together called al-Mu’awwidhatan, or “verses of refuge,” which include a phrase similar to “deliver us from evil”) are used extensively as talismanic recitations. Sura 36 is often recited at burials, when one is near death, or before going to bed or sleep. Also very popular are the “Throne Verse” (“Allah is the only god, living and eternal. He neither slumbers nor sleeps. Everything in the heavens and the earth is his,” 2:255) and sura 24 (“Light”).

A remarkable story of using the Psalms in a public sphere appeared on social media during Pakistan’s general election campaign of 2018. It was a recording of a Muslim leader of a mainstream political party reciting Zabur (Psalm) 91 from an Urdu Bible during a political rally. It was a public prayer for the safety and victory of their political party, and he picked a psalmic text that gave him a sense of divine protection and assurance. This surprising recitation of Psalm 91 in Pakistani politics illustrates the vital role Psalms can play in the public sphere. Roberta King’s remarkable work on peacebuilding through musical pathways culminates with the hope that the Book of Psalms, “a sacred book common to both Muslim and Christian tradition,” ²⁷ will help to foster peace and reconciliation among and between monotheistic faiths. Such examples provide theological and cultural support for using the Psalms as a textual resource in missional engagement. The poetic nature of Psalms is equal to the Qur’an as a prayer book, lectionary, and hymnal all rolled into one. It is an invaluable resource for engaging the ritual and spiritual practices of Islam. ²⁸

Conclusion: The missional path of the Psalms

“The Psalms are the womb of church music,” asserts Paul Westermeyer, ²⁹ and likewise they are part of the church’s mission. The New Testament is embedded in the foundation of the Old Testament, and thus the missional reading of the Psalter is relevant to the missional engagement of the nations, tribes, and kingdoms in God’s salvific plan. ³⁰ Scholars affirm and emphasize the missional nature of Psalms, pointing to the church’s mission to the nations in proclamation. ³¹ Various scholars recommend certain psalms as missional texts in different contexts. ³² The Muslim poet and philosopher Muhammad Iqbal used the title Zabur-e-Ajam (the Persian Psalms) for his book about the Muslim revolution under British colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent. ³³ The study of the practice of Psalms and the Qur’an is a topic that fits naturally in the public domain of Muslim society.

The psalmic spectrum of missional discourse expresses prayer songs as sacred texts at one pole, and worship as witness at the other, with a wide variety of combinations of oral or written word and missiological praxis occurring across the postulated spectrum. ³⁴ Graham further concludes, “Within this spectrum, the vocal word conveys with curious force a sense of spontaneity, participation, or personal involvement for the individual and the group through the emotive, sensory impression of the Psalms and prayer, litany and praise, chant, ritual pronouncements, and texts read or recited aloud. Such engagement is characteristic of religious sensibilities at the oral end of the spectrum.” ³⁵

The Qur’an is used for both the prayer book and the liturgical book of Islam— a function that neither Jewish Scriptures nor the Christian Bible, except the Psalter, have had. ³⁶ In our use of the Psalms, we can offer Muslims a point of commonality through which we can share experiences of worship.

The parallels between the Psalms and the Qur’an—in revelation, recitation, and ritual—thus open a way to private and public engagement with Islamic spirituality. The Book of Psalms and the Qur’an have the same status of divine revelation, and they have functioned primarily as a vocally transmitted text, a rhyming poetry that is meant to be memorized and recited orally in regular life and worship rituals. A missional and theological emphasis on the Psalms thus paves a path to the house of Islam, for study of the practice of the Psalms and of the Qur’an flows automatically into the public domain in Muslim society. Here it finds practical application in the highly popular artistic and devotional forms of oral recitation that have been one of the hallmarks of Islamic culture. The scriptural singing and reciting of the Psalms can lead to more significant relationships between Islam and Christianity, on the way to peacebuilding and interfaith friendship.