Book review: Raj Kumar,Dalit Literature and Criticism

The term ‘Dalit’ is not categorically meant to refer only the lower caste people of the society but it configures the marginal identity of those in the Indian casteist society. Although there was no written Dalit literature five or six decades ago, the current body of newly emerged Dalit literature is worth constructing for its new aesthetic principles across the disciplines of the Indian literary scene, as it reflects on their growing awareness of Dalit consciousness as well as their consolidation of Dalit identity in society. Apart from this Dalit literary endeavour, there is hardly any book available that addresses the literary criticism of Dalit literature. Raj Kumar’s Dalit Literature and Criticism (2019) seems to be an endeavour to take on the critical theory and history of Dalit literature to bridge this gap between Dalit criticism and literature. Taking into consideration the long-silenced voices of the Dalits, this book raises numerous questions and subjects that are significant to comprehending their voices in literature. Besides caste, Kumar further brings in various cultural, sociological and anthropological concepts regarding Dalit communities, such as ethnicity, religion, gender, language and nationalism. The book consists of six chapters, along with a preface and conclusion, each dealing with a particular and critical insight into the sociocultural past and theory of Dalit literature, followed by a glossary of critical Dalit terms and a suggested reading list.

The first chapter, entitled ‘Introducing the Concept of “Dalit”’, introduces the word ‘Dalit’ inclusively, locating them in Indian society, defining and redefining the term by referring to various Dalit activists and scholars from its genesis to till date. Kumar traces back the etymology of the term ‘Dalit’ to its Sanskrit origin ‘Dal’, which means ‘scattered’, ‘trodden’, ‘cracked’ and ‘broken’ (3). He addresses how this term has been used as a gender-neutral term to denote lower caste people, often referred to as ‘untouchables’, ‘bahishkrut’, ‘asprushya varga’, who are both physically and psychologically tormented, oppressed and suppressed by the upper caste people (4). This chapter goes on to explain how, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, as social movements of non-Brahmins and oppressed people gained traction, this term entered public discourse. Contextualizing the term in Dalit literature, the chapter further upholds how writing about their experiences as the victims of casteist society helps in the rising consciousness of Dalit subjectivity.

The second chapter, ‘Dalits and the Caste Question’, takes into account the question of caste which leads the discussion to the emergence of ‘Dalit’ in Indian casteist society. Expounding on this, Kumar brings in two contrasting theories. He first explicates the Western theory which is accompanied by historical research concentrating on the Aryan invasion and the consequent sociocultural subjugation, dominance and enslavement of the native population. The second theory relies on mythical and theological grounds supported by Hindu scriptures and religious texts, which promote the concept of hierarchical social structures like the Varna systems in India. This chapter endeavours to locate the lives of the Dalits from the perspective of caste, beginning with the Indus civilization and the role of the Aryans. This chapter traces the intellectual history of anti-caste movements, beginning with the Charvaka or Lokayata movement. The discussion goes on to show how Buddhism, Jainism, Bhakti saints and later non-Brahmin social reformist leaders such as Jotiba Phule, Periyar, B. R. Ambedkar and others fought fervently against prevailing caste practices. This chapter finally concludes with the present situation of the Dalits in post-Independence India.

In India, the advent of literature belonged to the privileged class of society, and Sanskrit was the predominant language of its production, which was again the language of upper-class Hindus. Thus, the problems of inequality and caste discrimination have never been focussed on in the literature of this country, and the Dalits or outcastes have solely expressed themselves through oral mediums like folk songs, dances and so on inherited from their ancestors. In the third chapter, ‘The Emergence of Dalit Literature’, Kumar asserts how this Dalit literature emerged and its various forms took shape over the years in India. He begins his discussion with the question of why this literature was overlooked until the nineteenth century. Although he cites examples of different Bhakti movement voices who spoke about the lower castes in the mediaeval period, he sketches down how the ‘untouchables’ merely endured outside literary production and remained voiceless for a long time due to the lack of formal education. With the arrival of the British in India and the introduction of English as the language of formal education to the outcaste and common people, upper-caste and Brahminical hegemony and dominance over knowledge crumbled, eventually leading to the ‘Enlightenment’ and various social reform movements. Kumar presents a trajectory of how these changes led to the emergence of a new kind of literary resistance for the long-silenced voices of the outcastes that catalysed the growth and development of the present-day literary movement. This chapter also traces the history of the early years of the Dalit Panthers, progressing to the treatment of caste in early modern literature and, finally, the articulation of Dalit subjectivity’s identity in literature by dedicated Dalit activists and writers.

The fourth chapter, ‘Understanding Dalit Aesthetics’, deals with numerous aspects of the aesthetics of Dalit literature. Kumar ignites a fresh debate around the representation of gender, caste, religion, ethnicity and language with the emergence of Dalit literature. He emphasizes that Dalit literature arose in India as a result of cultural conflict because ‘downtrodden’ people are unable to find a place in mainstream literature (67). Dalit writers endeavour to challenge the hegemony of upper-class literature, which they call ‘Hindu Literature’ (67). This chapter also addresses how Dalit literature tries ‘to bring marginal voices to the centre’ (69). The chapter further brings forth imperative issues like various important genres of Dalit literature, the use of their language, translation and Dalit literature and Dalit mythology, focussing on different scholarly perspectives offered by both the prominent authors and theorists.

In the fifth chapter, titled ‘Dalit Criticism in Practice: Akhila Naik’s Bheda’, Kumar tries to critically evaluate the novel Bheda (2010) in the context of the casteist system in Odisha. The first section deals with some of the preliminary questions about the emergence of novels in India, which subsequently leads the discussion to the main discourse, structure and language of the Dalit novel. While shedding light on the arrival of Dalit literature, Kumar cites different literary works by prominent Dalit writers like Joseph Macwan’s Angliyat, Kalyan Rao’s Untouchable Spring, Sivakami’s The Grip of Change, G. Kalyan Rao’s Antarani Vasantam and Sharankumar Limbale’s Hindu. This chapter interprets the novel of Akhila Naik’s Bheda at multiple levels through the lenses of Dalit criticism and theory. Kumar emphasizes that the theorization of Dalit literature has only been done so far. He addresses how a Dalit text needs to be evaluated first by examining the title of the novel, which is followed by looking into its narrative strategies, the development of the discourse, taking into account the insider–outsider dichotomy and the question of gender, religion and caste, and finally the prevalent themes in the text. This chapter is not only significant for the theorization of Dalit literary texts with the help of existing literary and cultural theories to interpret a text, but it also meticulously acquaints the readers with a brief history of the emergence of Dalit writings in Odisha.

The next chapter focuses on ‘Pedagogical Approaches to Dalit Literature’. Kumar addresses the importance of English in the Dalit context. While discussing literary studies in India, he mentions the newness of Dalit literature in terms of language, themes, pedagogy and structure. This chapter points out different contests and approaches in the context of Dalit Studies in India. This chapter also discusses the politics of caste emancipation in relation to Dalit studies, which, like genre studies, have emerged as a thought-provoking genre in various academic institutions around the world. Kumar finally sums up all the arguments and looks forward to new perspectives on experiencing Dalit literature across cultures and disciplines. The final section of the book contains a comprehensive ‘Glossary of Select Terms’, which is followed by a rich bibliography for further reading.

The book, Dalit Literature and Criticism, provides an insightful analysis of different sociological, historical, religious and cultural perspectives to understand Dalit aesthetics, the philosophy of Dalit literature, and approaches to Dalit literature in casteist Indian society. Mapping the distinct academic field of Dalit Studies, Raj Kumar tries to explore the field of Dalit criticism by discussing the key concepts of Dalit literature and criticism. Simultaneously, he attempts to initiate ‘dialogues on the issues relating to Dalit life, self-respect, and aesthetics’ (139). Although the book focuses in detail on South Indian Dalit literature, it hardly contains discussions of North Indian Dalit aesthetics and writings. Aside from that, this book is significant not only for its straightforward delineation of critical thoughts and Dalit literary criticism, but it also assists readers in perceiving a scholarly experience of reading Dalit literature across disciplines.