Resilient Urban Heritage: Vulnerability Assessment and Evaluation of Conservation Strategies for Disaster Risk Reduction of Srinagar City

Abstract

Srinagar, an ancient city, is well known for its heritage wealth with more than 1,200 years of urban history established in the region by passing through the greatest kingdoms in the past. Globally, due to many challenges, such as extreme urbanization, rapid population growth and climate change crisis, the urban heritage buildings, monuments and sites are subject to degradation and extinction over time. The present study intends to identify and evaluate the heritage sites located in the Srinagar city and assess their spatial and structural vulnerabilities. An extensive field survey was conducted by which 20 structural heritage sites dating back to the 1800s and before has been identified for evaluation. Vulnerability analysis of sites was done based on seven selected parameters fabricated within the 300-metre buffer zones in the geographic information system (GIS) environment. An insight into conservation strategies and planning measures and challenges in the disaster risk reduction of heritage resources have been portrayed in the study. The results show that the Srinagar city has significant heritage structures with beautiful architecture that is now in a dilapidated and deserted condition with limited implication of the conservation strategies and less involvement of the stakeholders. The results indicate a dire need for sustainable conservation measures incorporated for disaster risk reduction of the urban heritage. The study holds great significance for the decision-makers in policy development and planning, especially for the management of the sites.

Keywords

Urban heritage hazards conservation vulnerability disaster risk reduction

Introduction

Every community has its unique history of culture and inheritance preserved in the form of ecological and cultural heritage (UNESCO, 2008). Cities, towns and countries all have places, sites and structures that hold a distinctive identity and bear witness to their stages of evolution (Talukdar, 2010). An umbrella term ‘cultural heritage’ includes natural and man-made legacy (Szmelter, 2013). In line with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, there is a general acknowledgement that heritage needs to be identified, documented and conserved properly (UNESCO, 1972).

India, known for its rich cultural and historical heritage, is scattered with abundant specimens that tell tales of age-old civilizations, great empires, splendid architecture, sociocultural evolution, diverse religions, art and literature. India’s history of political, social, religious and regional conflicts has taken a toll on the monuments and structures (Menon, 2014). Srinagar, the largest city of Jammu and Kashmir, located in a fragile environment in the lap of the western Himalayas, is a high to very high seismic risk zone and prone to flood hazards (Anees et al., 2015; Bukhari et al., 2016). The drastically evolving urban centre, the political unrest, and the ever-increasing population threaten the heritage treasure, by either endangering the knowledge or destroying the structures and sites (Khan et al., 2015; Recchia, 2019). Therefore, documentation of the archives, conservation and maintenance of the ancient cultural heritage are a challenging task at the hands of government and researchers to attenuate the risk of losing heritage or serve as the basis for reconstruction (Allchin et al., 1989).

The study presented in this article tries to identify and evaluate 20 selected sites located in the Srinagar city dating back to the 1800s for spatial and structural vulnerability assessment. The analysis is supported by multilevel indicators to review and assess the existing conservation strategies and facilitate informed decision-making in the future. Our approach widens the perspective of city growth by focusing on preserving the historic–cultural heritage resources recognized as an element for sustainable development and ensuring their maximum possible vitality, values and functions to the benefit of current and future generations.

Identification and Evaluation of Urban Heritage Sites of Srinagar City

The Kashmir valley has a rugged topography, steep slopes and distinct geology and climate, which is susceptible to multiple hazards (Ahmad et al., 2021; Alam et al., 2015; Bhat et al., 2018; Shah et al., 2021). Srinagar is the only city in the valley with a high population that has encountered disastrous hazards historically (Alam et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2021). The rapid growth of the city has degraded the environment and changed the ecological setting of the region. The population has increased from 0.122 million people in 1901 to 1.225 million people in 2011, revealing a nearly tenfold increase that accounts for 900% growth with a net increase of 1.103 million people (Amin et al., 2012; Kuchay et al., 2016). The heritage character of the city is under threat by growing human interferences and official negligence (Alkazi, 2014).

The conservation and improvement of historic heritage areas require identification and mapping of sites, buildings and structures, and the procedure to identify the urban heritage of Srinagar city has been given a go ahead in its revised master plan of 2035. The study incorporates an extensive literature review and a spatial and structural analysis of heritage sites through field survey. A total of 20 heritage sites based on the age of the structure (i.e., dating back to the 1800s and older) were selected and their ground scenario was analyzed during the survey. The geographical coordinates of sites were recorded with the Trimble Juno GPS receiver. A location map (Figure 1) has been generated similar to the other works like Permit and Sithole (2021) and Anees et al. (2015). The buffer zones, 100 and 200 metres, respectively, were created following the survey conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), where 100 metres is the prohibited zone, and 200 metres is the regulated zone as presented in Figure 2.

Figure 1.

Source: The authors.

From the spatial analysis of the selected heritage sites (Figure 1 and Table 1), it was seen that majority of the sites fall within the municipal limits of the Srinagar city. The study reveals a rich and diverse cultural and historical heritage resource base such as the Mughal gardens, floating gardens, mosques, Sufi shrines, temples, gurudwaras, forts, tombs and palaces. Moreover, most of the buffer zones around heritage sites overlap and manifest an adequate number of historical structures located in the old city.

Detailed Evaluation of Heritage Sites

Pari Mahal: Pari Mahal (Figure 3a) is a monument constructed as a library in 1659, by Dara Shikoh, on one of the hills of the Zabarwan Range in the southwest of Dal Lake. The monument has been laid in the form of six arched terraces of 400 feet in length. The structure is made from rubble stone with lime. On the uppermost terrace, one can see the ruins of a Baradari facing the Dal Lake and a water reservoir built against the mountainside. The water tanks that are filled through underground pipelines resemble Islamic architecture. The water reservoir was fed from a spring once that has since gone dry. The monument is located in a secluded place amid dense shrub vegetation connected through a single road to the city. Presently, the Mahal is governed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is open to all visitors. It is recognized as a world-famous tourist destination where thousands of people visit to cherish the ancient art and culture depicted by the monument.

Table 1.

Geographical Location of Heritage Monuments/Sites of Srinagar City

Sl. No.	Sites	Latitude	Longitude
1	Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque (AM)	74.817057	34.103514
2	Burzahom Archaeological site (BA)	74.866934	34.169191
3	Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara (CG)	74.821839	34.103152
4	Dastgeer Sahib (DS)	74.817252	34.093291
5	Ganpatyar Temple (GT)	74.806739	34.078173
6	Harwan Archaeological Site (HA)	74.898415	34.154362
7	Hari Parbat (HP)	74.817095	34.105449
8	Imbambarah Zadibal (IB)	74.802896	34.110741
9	Jamia Masjid Srinagar (JM)	74.809634	34.098536
10	Kathi Darwaza (KD)	74.821399	34.103808
11	Khanqah-e-Moula (KM)	74.807814	34.091388
12	Khanqah Naqshbandi (KN)	74.812492	34.096438
13	Makhdoom Sahib Shrine (MS)	74.815107	34.10358
14	Pari Mahal (PM)	74.877279	34.081319
15	Pathar Masjid (PMsd)	74.805724	34.091756
16	Sangeen Darwaza (SD)	74.811791	34.109308
17	Shankaracharya Temple (ST)	74.843728	34.078997
18	Sharika Devi Temple (SDT)	74.81617	34.10873
19	Sher Garhi Palace (SP)	74.806079	34.073329
20	Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother (TZ)	74.806134	34.095064

Source: Primary field survey.

Pathar Masjid: A specimen of Mughal architecture located on the bank of Jhelum opposite the Khanqah, in Zainakadal, was constructed in the year 1623 by Nur Jahan, wife of Mughal Emperor Jehangir (Figure 3b). The mosque has polished grey limestone and consists of nine horizontal constructed arches. Each arch is further fringed by the multifoil arches horizontally. These arches and the projected cornice are decorated with lotus leaves. The sloping roof has 27 domes, which are carved beautifully. The mosque is preserved as a monument because it was declared unfit for religious use and has ever since remained isolated (Kaul, 1971). The monument is connected to the main road through a narrow alleyway surrounded by settlements on all three sides. The masjid is governed and managed by ASI.

Hari Parbat Fort: The Hari Parbat Fort is one among the monuments located on the hill of Koh-i-Maran or Hari Parbat, home to a temple, a gurudwara, and a dargah. Ata Muhammad Khan, an Afghan Governor, built the present rampart in 1808. However, the initial fortification of a city by the name Nager Nager is believed to have been carried out by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1590. The fort is constructed of stones with the lime mortar as a binding material, and it stands surrounded by structures of all religions built on the slopes of Koh-i-Maran. It is 122 metres above the valley floor. Many steps lead to the main gate (a giant wooden gate), and inside the fort are the soldiers residing in the walls. It is of great significance for security and political reasons ever since its inception (Figure 3c). It is maintained by the ASI and the Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (DAAM) of Kashmir. Earlier, the place was completely closed to the general public due to the political unrest. However, in the year 2014, the fort was opened to the public for sightseeing.

Figure 2.

Source: The authors.

Kathi Darwaza: It is the main entrance to the Hari Parbat Fort, a part of the outer periphery wall located in Rainawari, near the Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara (Figure 3d). The gate or Darwaza has been erected with stones and is one among the last remnants of the sixteenth-century fort wall built by Akbar in 1590. The gate to the ancient city is constructed on the foot of the hill Koh-i-Maran where the slope remains minimal. The structure is closely surrounded by human settlements on all sides, and it witnesses continuous heavy traffic all day, exposing the stone structure to physical and chemical damage. Moreover, it has a significant road connectivity and a fire station within a 0.4-km distance. Kathi Darwaza is managed by ASI that has been renovated recently.

Sangeen Darwaza: This is another entrance to the historical city fortified by Akbar (Nager Nager), located in the Hawal area, facing the Sharika Devi Temple on the Koh-i-Maran (Figure 3e). The structure has been constructed at the time of the original fortification wall in 1590 and is built with stones and lime mortar in the Mughal architectural style. It is surrounded densely by urban settlements on all sides. Similar to Kathi Darwaza, Sangeen Darwaza is also subject to physical and chemical damage. The site is well connected and built on minimal relief governed by ASI.

Figure 3.

Source: Field survey.

Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara: It is a historical Sikh shrine, situated near Kathi Darwaza, Rainawari, in the old city of Srinagar, commemorating the sixth Sikh guru, Guru Hargobind (Figure 3f). Regular religious visits, langar (free community kitchen) and accommodation mark the purpose of the place, other than tourist and pilgrim attractions. The material used in construction is mainly white marble. The accessibility through roads is sufficient. The Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara lies amid dense settlements on the main road exposing the structure to anthropogenic stressors. The shrine is managed by the Jammu and Kashmir Gurdwara Prabandhak Committees.

Sharika Mata Temple: Located on the western slope of the Hari Parbat, near Nowhatta, is the temple of Sharika Devi—an incarnation of Shakti—considered the presiding deity of Srinagar and highly sacred to the Kashmiri Pandits. There is no exact authentic year of construction mentioned in the literature for the temple. The monument is situated on a moderately elevated slope with a single road leading to a staircase of 108 steps going up to the temple made of bricks and stone, holding a life-sized statue of the deity. It was shut during the peak years of militancy after the exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits. Currently, it is open for daily visits and religious congregations from morning to evening. It is not densely surrounded by settlements on all sides and has a limited accessibility with the nearest fire station at about 1 km. It is managed and governed by the Government of Jammu and Kashmir.

Shrine of Makhdoom Sahib: This shrine of a very revered Sufi saint, Sheikh Hamza Makhdoom, is perched on the southern slope of the Hari Parbat (Figure 3g). It is a double-story structure supported by many pillars on the steep slopes built in ancient Mughal architectural design. The shrine has settlements spread around it, but they are not close to the shrine due to its location at a very high elevation. It has a two-sided access—one from Nowhatta and the other from Rainawari having about 80 steps that lead to the shrine. A cable car has been initiated to take the devotees down the slope. It is maintained and preserved well by the Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Waqf Board, which facilitates hundreds of devotees annually.

Akhund Mullah Shah’s Mosque: Known by the name Dara Shikoh Masjid, it is a mosque built by Dara Shikoh in 1649 for his spiritual guide (Figure 3h). It is situated below the Makhdoom Sahib Shrine on the moderate scarp of Hari Parbat. The structure is made of granite, limestone and brick. The construction holds a mosque inside a mosque, including a praying area, a tank for ablution, apartments for devotees and servants, and a hammam. The podium of the mosque has a stone lotus on the top. The stone walls have borne the great earthquakes of the Kashmir valley. The monument is no more in use and is in a partially dilapidated condition with much of the stone and brickwork exposed and some portions have fallen off in the past. The structure is now being excavated and repair work is going on. This structure is managed by ASI.

Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother: The high and massive five-domed mausoleum is built upon the remains of some Hindu architecture by Zain-ul-Abidin in AD 1430 made up of stone, bricks and tiles (Figure 3i). The compound of this thick-walled structure also serves as a cemetery. Minor to moderate cracks are visible in the structure. The renovation was carried out in the early years of the 2000s. It is built along the banks of Jhelum, is well connected through roads and is surrounded densely by settlements. The Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother’s grave is inside the tomb and is a more or less enclosed structure with one entrance and small windows. The tomb is managed and preserved by the ASI.

Khanqah-e-Moula: The shrine of Shah-e-Hamdan, sitting on the banks of Jhelum was constructed in 1395 on the foundation of an ancient temple (Figure 3j). The two-storied structure is a work of wood decoration with papier-mâché, supported by wooden pillars. Large windows cut out in the walls represent beautiful wooden architecture of Islamic style. The slope of the roof is gently underlined by wooden cornices. The shrine is highly vulnerable to fire hazards like the incidents that occurred in the year 1480 and 1731, and, recently, in the year 2017, a fire broke out and damaged a large portion of the shrine. However, it has been restored and repaired from time to time and thus stands firm. The structure is managed and preserved by ASI and the Muslim Waqf Board. The shrine is very ancient located in the old city and visited by hundreds of pilgrims annually.

Burzahom Archaeological Site: Located in Batapora along the Dalgate road, the site holds remains that indicate the cultural sequence of human habitation from 3000 BC to 1000 BC, which was first discovered in 1936 by the Yale–Cambridge Expedition, and the site has been nominated as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO (still under consideration). Currently, the site has an excavated pit, giant monoliths, one covered dwelling and human encroachments such as a cricket ground, orchards, settlements and vehicle movement. The site lies in neglect and is a victim of vandalism and illegal excavations (Figure 3k). It is situated at a moderately elevated plane, with a single road for connectivity and a low-density settlement around the site. The site is protected by ASI and is accessible for limited activities.

Harwan Archaeological Site: The Harwan Monastery is a relic of Kashmir’s Buddhist past (Figure 3l). These appeared as structures barely distinguishable from the conventional dwellings in Kashmir of rubble stone at first, but later, the architecture of these stupas was found to follow a certain pattern in the arrangement of building material. The site has specimens of terracotta dating back to AD 500. The monastery had an important role in Buddhism, and it is believed that the fourth Buddhist council of Sarvastivada School was held here. The area has a moderate slope located in the Zabarwan mountain ranges and has limited connectivity with no presence of settlements. The site is managed and governed by ASI. As in the case of Burzahom site, few activities are allowed in the nationally protected site.

Sher Garhi Palace: The palace is the former residence of the Maharajas of Jammu and Kashmir from the Dogra dynasty and is located in the Nowhatta area, the southern part of the old city on the left bank of the Jhelum River (Figure 3m). The complex was constructed as a fortress and a palace by the Afghan governor Jawan Sher Khan in 1772. The palace is made from bricks and stones and has been extended several times in the nineteenth century. Nowadays, the complex is called the ‘Old Secretariat’ and houses administrative departments of the Government of Jammu and Kashmir and is surrounded by a moderate to a high density of settlements with good connectivity. The place is managed and governed by the DAAM of Kashmir.

Jamia Masjid: Jamia Masjid, the largest mosque in Kashmir, located in Nowhatta, is a massive and complex specimen of architecture (Shali, 1993) (Figure 3n). It consists of all the typical features of the Kashmiri wooden style and was destroyed by fire and restored many times (Hasan, 1974). The monument was built by Sultan Sikandar Shah Shahmiri in AD 1394. The building material of the monument includes stone, bricks, wood, cement, tin sheets, wooden pillars and thick walls to strengthen the structure. There are four main minars in the centre of each side and each minar has a pyramid-like roof with a huge pinnacle. The mosque has a square structure consisting of 378 giant deodar pillars. It is fenced all around to keep the structure safe. It has resisted major earthquakes of history that has struck the region providing evidence of the strength of the material, and it is still in good condition. The monument is well connected through roads located in the congested market of Nowhatta. It is managed by the Waqf Muslim Board of Jammu and Kashmir, and currently, hundreds of people offer their prayers in the masjid.

Khanqah Naqshbandi It was constructed in AD 1633 over the sacred grave of Naqshbandi Sahib in the heart of the city near Jamia Masjid (Figure 3o). The shrine comprises ancient Kashmiri wooden architecture. The site has an intricate Khatamband (carved wood) ceiling, a pyramid-like multi-layered roof, and a huge pinnacle placed over it. There are small windows all around the mosque with wooden walls having lattice and Pinjrakari work. The shrine is well connected through roads and has sufficient access to the fire station situated in a densely populated area. However, its architectural glory and magnificence have been seriously affected by some houses and shops that have grown around and the increasing traffic. The site is looked after by Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Waqf Board.

Dastgeer Sahib Shrine (Khanqahi Gousia): This shrine is situated in the heart of old Srinagar city at Khanyar constructed in AD 1806 in the name of Jinab Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jeelani (Figure 3p). The structure is chiefly constructed with wood and is an architectural masterpiece. The structure has an ancient Khatamband ceiling, several chandeliers and beautiful papier- mache and calligraphy on the sacred walls of the mosque. Moreover, it has been observed that the structure is earthquake resistant and has safely stood in the seismic zone of the Himalayas. However, the mosque is highly prone to fire hazards and has undergone several incidents of fire in the past like the one in 2012 when a devastating fire burnt down the whole structure. The structure is easily accessible through roads located in a highly congested area. Renovation and extensions in horizontal and vertical directions of this shrine building have been carried out by Sufi saints and nobles of Kashmir. It is managed and protected by the Jammu and Kashmir Waqf Board of Muslims.

Ganpatyar Temple: The 200-year-old Ganesh temple is situated along the banks of the river Jhelum in Habba Kadal in the Ganpathyar area, named after the temple. The temple findings are mentioned in many ancient scripts, including travel diaries of the famous Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang (the great Chinese Buddhist Monk). The brick structure is connected well through roads and has a moderate-to-high density of settlements on three sides of the temple. Thousands of devotees used to visit the temple before the exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits, after which the temple was attacked. The presence of the soldiers of the Indian Army has protected the temple and is under the consideration of the government.

Shankaracharya Temple: The monument is a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, located on top of the Koh-i-Suleman (or Shankaracharya hill) that falls in the Zabarwan mountain range in Srinagar. The earthquake-resistant temple is a beautiful stone architecture that has withstood the impact of time ever since it was constructed in 371 BC. It consists of a 20-foot large octagonal base over which a square-shaped building was constructed with polished stones. The four octagonal pillars that support the ceiling surround the sacred Shiva linga placed inside the temple. The hillock is located on the bank of the Dal Lake. A single road reaches the hilltop where a flight of about 250 steps leads to the main temple area. The monument is not surrounded by any actual settlements and is under constant security (armed forces reside within the limits of the temple). The temple is used for regular worship and is a tourist attraction with devotees thronging the temple. It was managed earlier in the nineteenth century by Dharmarth Trust and now is nationally protected by ASI.

Imbambarah Zadibal : Imambarah is a sanctuary for Moharram rituals. Zadibal Imambarah, one of the major sanctuaries which attract very heavy congregations, is the first to be constructed in the Kashmir Valley by Kaji Chak in 1518. The monument has frequently suffered from vandalism, arson and destruction several times in the past and has been rebuilt every time. It is a two-story building made from bricks and wood. It can be easily accessed due to its location near the highway, situated near the Kushal Sar Lake and Hari Parbat amid a dense settlement. Imambarah is protected by the Waqf Board.

Governance and Management of Heritage Sites

The existing regulations and governing organizations for the heritage preservation and conservation are as follows:

The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (Amendment and Validation 2010) 1958: The Act lays out the preservation, regulation and protection of the ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance. However, the Act was amended in the year 2010 that provides for the creation of 100 metres of prohibited area and a 200-metre regulation area.

Jammu and Kashmir Heritage Conservation and Preservation Act, 2010: This Act was enacted after 65 years of India getting its independence and provided for the preservation and conservation of all tangible and intangible heritage characters.

Archaeological Survey of India: The national protected monuments/sites are governed by the ASI, under the provision of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, and it is the country’s leading archaeological research and preservation body. The ASI is a part of the Ministry of Culture that primarily focuses on the preservation of ancient monuments, archaeological sites and national–historical relics. The Antiquities and Art Treasure Act of 1972 is governed by it. ASI-protected monuments/buildings of historic and architectural significance in the local planning area (Jammu and Kashmir) are 69 in number among which 16 are located in the Srinagar city such as Pathar Masjid (Zainakadal), ancient temple (Bohri Kadal), Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother (Zina Kadal), Khanqah of Shah Hamdan, Akhund Mulla Shah’s Mosque, Gates in the rampart of the Fort ( Kathi Darwaza and Sangeen Darwaza), Ancient Temple (Hari Parbat Fort), temple in Naranag (Kangan), ancient site and remains (Burzahom), ancient monastery and stupa (Harwan), Pari Mahal, Shankaracharya Temple, ancient temple (Pandrethan), excavated remains (Pandrethan), and Pandrethan Temple.

Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums of Kashmir (DAAM): The state-protected monuments/sites are governed by the DAAM. The main focus of the DAAM is to preserve the tangible heritage wealth of Jammu and Kashmir. The state-protected monuments governed by DAAM are 48 in number (Jammu and Kashmir), out of which 9 are located in the Srinagar district such as SPS Museum, Sadder Court, Stone building Old Secretariat and Sheergarhi Complex, Mughal Hammam Shalimar, Nager Rampart wall (Qalie), Sheikh Mohammad Ibrahim allies (Thagbab Sahib), Old Ceremonial at Old Secretariat, Hari Parbat Fort and Mosque and Tomb of Madin Sahib (Hawal).

The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage: The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is a non-profitable charitable organization registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, and has been identified as the largest heritage organization in the world founded in 1984 in New Delhi. The main aim of the organization is the conservation and preservation of the natural and built heritage, as well as the intangible heritage of the nation. INTACH has listed 180 built heritage sites in the Srinagar city among which the heritage sites of the present study such as Shankaracharya Temple, Imambarah, Akhund Mulla Shah Mosque, Khanqah, Dastgeer Sahib, Pathar Masjid, Jamia Masjid, Zain-ul-Abidin’s Tomb and Gurdwara are also enrolled.

Jammu and Kashmir board for Muslim Specified Waqfs and Waqf properties: The Jammu and Kashmir Waqf Board formed under the provision of section (9) of the Waqf Act of 1954 aims to protect, regulate and manage the Waqf properties of the region. The Waqf property is given in the name of god for religious and charitable activities. The Muslim religious places in Jammu and Kashmir, such as Dastgeer Sahib, Khanqah and Makhdoom Sahib, are managed and conserved by the Waqf Board.

Gurdwara Prabandhak Committees in Jammu and Kashmir: The Gurdwara Prabandhak Committees are formed under the provision of the Jammu and Kashmir Sikh Gurdwaras and Religious Endowment Act, 1973. The committees are the custodian of all the Sikh places and Gurudwaras and are responsible for their management and preservation in Jammu and Kashmir.

Conservation Strategies for Disaster Risk Reduction of Heritage Sites

Global and national conservation and management plans mainly focus on disaster risk reduction of heritage and cultural sites. Disaster management guidelines for heritage buildings are one of the proposed resolutions for protecting and conserving heritage buildings. Various international and national organizations have provided a framework for the management of the cultural heritage from a disaster aspect as follows:

UNESCO has published ‘Managing Disaster Risks for World Heritage’ in June 2010.

International Centre for the study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) has adopted the international charter for the conservation and restoration of monuments and sites in the II International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice, 1964. ICCROM published ‘A Guide to Risk Management for Cultural Heritage’ and ‘Risk Preparedness; A management manual for Cultural Heritage’.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015–2030, was adopted at the Third UN World Conference in Sendai, Japan, on 18 March 2015.

National Policy for Conservation of the Ancient Monuments, Archaeological Sites and Remains: (NPC—AMASR), protected by ASI, Ministry of Culture, Government of India, Janpath, New Delhi, February 2014, has a clause on disaster management of cultural heritage.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) published the National Disaster Management Guidelines for Cultural Heritage sites and Precincts in 2017.

The fundamental steps for conservation in the disaster risk reduction of cultural heritage sites based on principles and guidelines are to reduce the vulnerability, and exposure, and to increase the capacity of the heritage structures (NIDM). According to ICCROM, the basic strategy for the conservation and preservation of heritage buildings is to reduce the risk at the source, strengthen and reinforce the structure and its parts, provide adequate warning of impending disaster and develop emergency response plans. UNESCO, one of the leading organizations, has set the provision for conserving heritage by integrating heritage in urban and regional planning, ecosystem restoration around heritage sites and mitigation through monitoring and early warning system.

Vulnerability Assessments of Sites

The heritage sites of Srinagar are exposed to various hazards such as earthquakes, floods, fires, slope failures and vandalism. The city is susceptible to seismic hazards (Anees & Bhat, 2015), thereby making architectural buildings vulnerable in the zone (Sana, 2018). The heritage sites situated at high elevation can experience slope failures due to seismic shocks and liquefaction. The major disaster affecting the urban areas is flooding due to increased impervious surfaces (Tabish & Nabil, 2015)—a recent flood episode in September 2014 caused a disaster in the Srinagar city and affected a large population in the region (Ahmad et al., 2017; Mishra, 2015). Fire episodes are common in urban areas usually; historic structures face the brunt due to the outbreak of fires. Vandalism and riots are other threats to urban heritage sites that are situated in conflict zones.

The present study assesses the vulnerability of the selected heritage sites in Srinagar as they are prone to multiple hazards. Vulnerability evaluation of the sites was carried out by incorporating spatial and structural indicators, namely drainage, road networks, slope, nearness to fire station, distance from urban settlements, age and construction material of the structure (Bukhari et al., 2016; Cochrane & Schaad, 1992; Salazar et al., 2021). The data for the generation of the vulnerability matrix was obtained from primary and secondary sources. Drainage, settlement, road map and the fire station location map were obtained by the field survey and satellite images (Sentinel Satellite Images, 2020) through the assistance of Google Earth. Slope, age and construction material data of sites were obtained from the literature review and the field survey.

The vulnerability matrix for each site was generated by evaluating the data layers encompassing a 300 meter buffer, and finally, a heritage vulnerability map was prepared for the Srinagar city (Mattei et al., 2019; Rodríguez-Rosales et al., 2021).

Vulnerability Assessment of the Five Spatial and Two Structural Parameters of Selected Heritage Sites in the Study Area

Fire Station: The wooden structures are most vulnerable to fire hazards and the smaller the distance to the fire station, lesser would be the damage caused by the fire. The sites with a minimum distance to the nearest fire station are the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother, Pari Mahal, Pathar Masjid, Ganpatyar Temple, Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara, and Kathi Darwaza, whereas the sites like Harwan Archaeological site, Hari Parbat, Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque, Burzahom, Shankaracharya and Imambarah are at a great distance from their nearest fire station (Figure 4a).

Roads: The degree of accessibility to the sites is defined by the number of roads connecting to the point. The lesser the accessibility, higher is the vulnerability of the site. From the road map presented in Figure 4b, it was found that sites Pathar Masjid, Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother, Jamia Masjid, Dastgeer Sahib, Kathi Darwaza, Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara have high accessibility with the maximum number of roads connecting to the destination point. Sites like Shankaracharya Temple, Sharika Devi Temple, Imambarah Zadibal and Burzahom Archaeological Site have lower connectivity with only a road serving as an access, and Harwan Archaeological Site is the only site with zero connectivity, making it more vulnerable to hazards.

Drainage: The larger the number of streams around heritage sites, higher is the chances of more waterlogging and flooding. Sites such as Pathar Masjid, Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother, Khanqah-e-Moula and Sher Garhi Palace situated on banks of the river Jhelum are vulnerable to floods or bank failure, whereas the remaining sites are situated away from the river bodies and have relatively fewer chances of flooding (Figure 4c).

Settlement: The presence of settlements near a heritage can cause degradation of heritage sites by excess human interferences. The sites with the maximum presence of settlements are Pathar Masjid, Kathi Darwaza, Jamia Masjid, Sangeen Darwaza, Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara, Imambarah, Khanqah-e-Moula and Dastgeer Sahib, and the sites with minimum settlements in the vicinity of heritage structures are Shankaracharya Temple, Harwan Archaeological Site, Hari Parbat, Pari Mahal, Burzahom Archaeological Site and the Sharika Devi Temple (Figure 4d).

Slope: The presence of the degree of the slope was investigated through field visits and recorded for each site. The higher the degree of slope, more is the vulnerability of structures to slope failure and also limited access to the sites. Shankaracharya Temple, Pari Mahal, Makhdoom Sahib and Hari Parbat are located at a higher elevation; Burzahom Archaeological Site, Harwan Archaeological Site, Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque and Sharika Devi Temple have a moderate elevation; and Tomb of Zain–ul-Abidin’s Mother, Pathar Masjid, Kathi Darwaza, Khanqah-e-Moula, Ganpatyar Temple and Sher Garhi Temple lie on the plane surface of the city.

Figure 4.

Source: The authors.

Construction material: The material with which the heritage buildings are constructed and their capacity to resist the disasters play an important role in determining their vulnerability to all the hazards that are at risk. Sites constructed in wood viz., Khanqah Naqshbandi and Khanqah-e-Moula are relatively more vulnerable to fire, weathering, floods, earthquakes, etc., than the structures made of wood, bricks and stones such as Imambarah, Dastgeer Sahib, Makhdoom Sahib, Jamia Masjid and Sher Garhi Palace. The structures built with stones such as Pathar Masjid, Pari Mahal, Akhund Mulla Shah Mosque, Hari Parbat, Shankaracharya, Sharika Devi, etc. (Figure 5a) are less vulnerable.

Figure 5.

Source: The authors.

Age: The older the structure, the more vulnerable it is to hazards such as fires, climate change, weathering, as well as loss of strength of the material and weakness of the structure over time. The ancient sites selected are Burzahom, Shankaracharya and Harwan Archaeological sites that date back to 3000 BC, 371 BC and AD 500, and the youngest structures such as Sharika Devi Temple, Ganpatyar Temple and Dastgeer Sahib that are selected for the study are constructed in the year 1773, 1800 and 1806, respectively (Figure 5b).

The multi-hazard vulnerability matrix for 20 sites prepared within the delineated 300-metre buffer zones is presented in Table 2, where each parameter was weighted in accordance to the scores ranging from 0 to 1 where 0 means no vulnerability and 1 stands for high vulnerability. From the matrix, a multi-hazard vulnerability map of heritage structures was generated by the summation of individual scores of given parameters for each site as presented in Figure 6. The results of the study show that heritage sites such as Harwan (4.5), Burzahom (4) and Hari Parbat (3.75) are very highly vulnerable to various hazards (mentioned earlier), heritage sites with high to medium vulnerability are Makhdoom Sahib (3.5), Khanqah-e-Moula (3.25), Shankaracharya (3.25), Akhund Mullah shah Mosque (3.25), Imambarah (3.25) and Pathar Masjid (2.5), whereas sites such as Pari Mahal (2.25), Kathi Darwaza (2), Ganpatyar Temple ( 2.25), Sangeen Darwaza (2), Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara (2) and Sharika Devi temple (2) have relatively low vulnerability based on selected variables.

Table 2.

Multi-hazard Vulnerability Matrix of Heritage Sites of City

Sites	Age of the Structure	Construction Material	Fire Station Availability	Nearness to Water Bodies	Accessibility (roads)	Nearness to Settlements	Slope
PM	0.5	0.25	0.25	0	0.5	0	1
PMd	0.5	0.25	0.25	0.25	0	1	0
KD	0.5	0.25	0.25	0	0	1	0
TZ	0.75	0.5	0.25	0.25	0	1	0
KM	0.75	1	0.25	0.25	0.5	0.5	0
BA	1	1	0.75	0.25	0.5	0.25	0.25
GT	0.25	0.5	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.75	0
SP	0.5	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.75	0
AM	0.5	0.25	1	0.25	0.25	0.5	0.5
JM	0.75	0.75	0.25	0	0	1	0
MS	0.5	0.75	1	0	0.25	0.5	0.5
HP	0.75	0.25	1	0	0.75	0	1
SD	0.5	0.25	0.25	0	0	1	0
CG	0.5	0.25	0.25	0	0	1	0
IB	0.75	0.5	0.5	0	0.5	1	0
KN	0.5	1	0.25	0	0	1	0
Z)HA	1	1	0.75	0.25	1	0	0.5
ST	1	0.25	0.5	0	0.5	0	1
SDT	Na	0.25	0.25	0	0.5	0.5	0.5
DS	0.25	1	0.25	0	0	1	0

Source: Field survey and literature review.

Discussion and Conclusion

The cultural and ecological heritage is put at an irreversible and ever-increasing risk of damage and eventual extinction as a result of impact from rampant urban expansion, environmental degradation and landscape decay as discussed in previous works (Black & Wall, 2001; Chapman, 2013; Hitchcock et al., 2010; Miksic, 2011). Limited research work has been carried out on the consequences of loss of resources in historical and cultural heritage in comparison to the ecological perspective of the problem in the Srinagar city.

The present condition of Srinagar heritage sites was portrayed by identifying the heritage sites that are vulnerable to multiple hazards. Moreover, from the field survey, it has been observed that the conservation strategies for protecting the heritage from disaster risks do not reflect on the ground. The heritage sites exposed to multi-hazards are not assessed and neither identified. Heritage sites such as Pathar Masjid, Tomb of Zain-ul -Abidin’s Mother, Sher Garhi Palace, Akhund Mullah Shah Mosque and Sangeen Darwaza have been left abandoned and have become more vulnerable to disasters. Structures such as Pari Mahal, Tomb of Zain-ul -Abidin’s Mother, and Harwan excavation site are suffering from deteriorating walls, discoloration and stone structures seem to be highly damaged with minimal to no repair work undertaken. The timber structures like Khanqah-e-Moula and Khanqah-e-Naqshbandi are also deteriorating. The world-famous archaeological site located in Burzahom has turned into cattle-rearing ground, the Harwan Archaeological Site has no road connectivity and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s Mother in the central city is connected via a very narrow footpath from the main road. The heritage structures like Pathar Masjid, Kathi Darwaza, Jamia Masjid, and Dastgeer Sahib Shrine share walls with shops and houses, and the Sher Garhi Palace is burnt down due a fire that broke out a few years ago, and still, no action has been taken to renovate the structure.

Figure 6.

Source: The authors.

There is rarely a site where any of the framed conservation strategies from the disaster perspective have been executed. The revised master plan of Srinagar city 2030 has no mention of a disaster management plan for heritage structures and monuments. The 100-metre prohibited buffer zone and 200 metre regulated buffer zone as suggested by the ASI do not exist around the heritage buildings, structures or sites. The emergency response plan suggested by ICOMOS for heritage protection to minimize the damage is not framed yet in the state, which could have included the emergency pathways, fire drills, emergency vehicles, etc., associated with the proper understanding of the property. As per the conservation strategy of ICOMOS, which is to strengthen the structures, resist and reduce the vulnerability, the existing structures are dilapidated and deteriorating. The guidelines published by NIDM for disaster risk reduction of cultural heritage sites were supposed to reduce the exposure to certain elements that can increase the vulnerability of the structures. The condition of Srinagar heritage sites is depressing in terms of the response to these guidelines.

The study finds that most of the historical sites are important from a religious point of view, which thousands of people visit annually. Moreover, these religious sites are located in core areas of the city, and it is difficult to create buffer zones around the sides. However, the location of many structures amid the congested urban settings may increase the adverse impacts on the monuments by manifolds and quicken their deterioration. The constant vibration caused by traffic, appalling levels of pollution, transportation, and other means, physical damage or deliberate vandalism, and arson incidents witnessed in the past have all enhanced the deterioration process of these structures.

The results of the study reveal that majority of the heritage structures are more or less resilient to earthquakes, as monuments seem to incorporate the threat of seismicity in their architecture either through materials or the techniques used and have stood the test of time and incidents of earthquake in the past. Structures which fall in the flood plains, supposedly vulnerable to floods, have never experienced flooding because of the suitable planning of the ancient city. Although factors such as slope failure, deterioration through weathering, or breaching or washing away of banks, and climate change still threaten the structures. It has been found that the damage and decay of these heritage structures have been caused by anthropogenic activities more than the natural hazards, intentionally or unintentionally.

The study supports the perspective of city growth by focusing on preserving the historic–cultural heritage resources recognized as a key element for sustainable development; important measures to be adopted for reducing their vulnerability to disasters; and a way of ensuring their maximum possible vitality, values and functions to benefit the current and future generation. To achieve this, modification of existing management practices and preservation frameworks at both the institutional policy level and local level is required. The study suggests strict measures to be incorporated with the involvement of the various stakeholders such as religious bodies, local people, tourists, communities and government officials to conserve and protect them. Resilient and safe environments should be at the centre of adaptation of sustainable transformations of cities and their heritage for which risk-based approaches should be incorporated with an evaluation of sensitivities (vulnerabilities) and capacities to adapt to existing and potential, natural or human-induced hazards in cities.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

All parties involved have no conflict of interest and thank all anonymous contributors to the study for their ideas, physical efforts, literary and language, technical and software support and in compilation.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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