Recent developments in the research and digitalization of Jurchen script and literature

Introduction

The Jurchen language was spoken by the Jurchen tribes that founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in Northeast China during the 12th and 13th centuries. It is the oldest known language among the Tungusic family and is known as the ancestor of the Manchu. The Jurchen writing system consisted of two types of script: Jurchen large script and Jurchen small script. ¹

According to the Jinshi (History of the Jin Dynasty), the large script was invented in 1119 by Wanyan Xiyin 完颜希尹 and Yelu 叶鲁, under the instruction of the Jin Emperor Taizu, Wanyan Aguda. About two decades later, Emperor Xizong created and promulgated the small script in 1138. ² Although the two scripts were used concurrently upon their creation, they did not gain widespread popularity immediately, since Khitan script and Chinese characters were still used. ³ It was not until the reign of Dading (1161–1189) of Emperor Shizong that Jurchen characters gained popularity. This was attributed to the establishment of Jurchen imperial examinations, official institutions for translating Chinese classics, and a series of initiatives aimed at promoting Jurchen script. Following the fall of the Jin dynasty, Jurchen script continued to be utilized in the northeastern region where the Jurchen people resided. The trilingual “Yongningsi bei” 永宁寺碑 (Stele in the Yongning Temple), discovered near the mouth of the Amur River, was erected in 1413, which was inscribed in Chinese, Mongolian, and Jurchen. It provides evidence that Jurchen script remained the dominant writing system in the area where the stele was erected until the Ming dynasty. The book Nüzhen yiyu 女真译语 (A Chinese-Jurchen Glossary), created by the Chinese government’s Bureau of Translators, Siyi Guan 四夷馆, during the early Ming dynasty, indicated that the Bureau of Translators continued to utilize Jurchen script for communication with Jurchen tribes. In 1445, the official script for communication with the Jurchen tribes finally shifted from Jurchen to Mongolian, in response to a request made by Xuancheng Wei 宣城卫 (Garrison at Xuancheng City) in northeast China. Jurchen script gradually fell out of use and became an unfamiliar script.

Since the initial investigation of the “Nüzhen jinshi timing bei” 女真进士题名碑 (Stele inscribing the names of successful jinshi candidates) by Liu Shilu 刘师陆 in 1829, early scholars have made great progress in the study of Jurchen documents. Over the past two decades, extensive research has been conducted on both existing documents, such as the Chinese-Jurchen Glossary, and newly discovered Jurchen inscriptions on rocks or relics, as discussed in the next section. The digitalization of Jurchen script and documents is improved by encoding this script in the Universal Character Set and the creation of standard Jurchen characters. Therefore, this article provides an overview of the latest results and achievements in the research of Jurchen script and language since the beginning of the 21st century, as well as a brief introduction to the digitalization of Jurchen language and script.

New progress in the study of Jurchen inscriptions and documents

The number of surviving Jurchen documents worldwide is exceptionally small, with the majority preserved in Asia and Europe. Noteworthy advancements in Jurchen documents often occur in tandem with the excavation and deciphering of newly discovered Jurchen steles and ancient artifacts. Several monuments engraved with Jurchen inscriptions have been discovered in China, Russia, and Mongolia. In addition, scholars have also made advancements in re-examining the existing Jurchen documents. The following section highlights the latest progresses in Jurchen monumental inscriptions and literary works.

The “Wanyan Xiang jigong moya” 完颜襄记功摩崖 (Inscriptions for a victory by Wanyan Xiang): This was carved in 1196 and was discovered in Khentii Province, Mongolia in 1986. The Jurchen stone monument documented the historical event of Wanyan Xiang’s (1140–1202) removal from the office and leading of the military campaign against Beizhubei 北朮孛. Through the analysis of the stele inscription, Mu and Sun (2004) re-deciphered the 140 Jurchen characters comprising nine lines. The first two lines of Jurchen text were well-preserved and could be transcribed as ambanla dulila ančun gurun čanšu yučin / kaipu gituŋ sasi weilesu šinguŋ hulas an le. The remaining lines are somewhat mutilated. ⁴

The “Stele for encouraging learning in Jurchen large script” 女真大字劝学碑 (Nüzhen dazi quanxue bei): The stele was unearthed in the ruins of the ancient city of Shangjing上京, located near the Daowai district in Harbin, China. The inscription on the stele was divided into two columns, with six characters on the left column and five characters on the right. Aisin Gioro and Jin (2009) translated the Jurchen text into Chinese. ⁵ According to their study, 11 characters can be interpreted as seven words, which convey the meaning that one should always be prepared for writing, whether in the morning or at night. The purpose of erecting the stele was to inspire students to study diligently. This stele was established by the Jin dynasty as part of their efforts to promote the Jurchen school. It is also evidence that supports the historical account in Jinshi regarding the existence of the Jurchen school.

The “Ninganshi chutu nüzhenwen canbei” 宁安市出土女真文残碑 (Jurchen fragmentary stele excavated in Ning’an City): The stele was discovered near Ning’an City, Heilongjiang Province in 2014. This stele, which belongs to the Jin dynasty, is now fragmentary. It has four sides, with a total of 24 characters on two adjacent sides. One side recorded the owner and the specific reason for its erection. The other side contained detailed information, including the erection time and the name of the person responsible. Scholars from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Diao and Zhao, 2016) have identified that the stele was a tombstone belonging to a minister named Aotun. He passed away at the age of 58 and was buried on the seventh day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar. The individual who erected the tombstone was Ain Sirin.

The “Huashiya nüzhenwen tike” 花石崖女真文题刻 (Jurchen inscription on the Huashiya Cliff): The inscription was discovered in Huashiya Township in October 2015, on the outer cliff of a grotto situated approximately 60  km south of Shenmu County, Shaanxi province. During the Ming dynasty, the site was originally a grotto affiliated with Qingliang Temple 清凉寺. The outer cliff of the grotto was inscribed in both Chinese and Jurchen scripts. Based on the form and content of the existing inscriptions, it is believed that the Jurchen inscription on the left side was carved around the same period as the Chinese inscription on the right side, which dates back to 1228 during the Jin dynasty. Although the lower part of the left-side inscription has been damaged, approximately 210 Jurchen characters have been preserved and can still be identified. The two inscriptions were not translations of each other; Aisin Gioro ⁶ (Aisin Gioro and Yoshimoto, 2017) and Sun (2018) independently deciphered the contents of the Jurchen part. Based on Sun’s latest study, the Jurchen text proved to be an imperial decree issued to the commissioner of Michuan County. This inscription represents the first known Jurchen relic discovered in the borderland between the Jin and Xixia dynasties. It provides valuable support for historical research on the transitional period between these two dynasties.

The “Jurchen epigraph on the Arkhara River”: The Jurchen epigraph was written on the rock located on the right bank of the Arkhara River near the border between Russia and China. Although the rock art there had been studied by Russian scholars during the 20th century, the first scholar who noticed the Jurchen script written on the rock was Prof. Andrey Pavlovich Zabiyako of Amur State University. He conducted several investigations of the archaeological monument at the Arkhara rock art site, in 2003 and 2014–2018. In his initial publication (Zabiyako, 2004) on this epigraph, he proposed that the text might be written in either Khitan or Jurchen scripts, with Jurchen being the more likely choice. During the second expedition, he collaborated with scholars from Japan and Russia, and 24 Jurchen characters were finally identified and reconstructed. The deciphered text revealed (Zabiyako, 2019) that the epigraph was created in 1127, making it one of the earliest written sources discovered on the left bank of the Amur River. ⁷ Aisin Gioro participated in a joint expedition with Amur State University in 2015 and subsequently published her own research (Aisin Gioro and Yoshimoto, 2017) on the 24 Jurchen characters, including the Japanese translation. Meanwhile, West (2018) presented the discovery and research of the epigraph on his blog, ⁸ where he discussed the date of the epigraph as well as the individual Jurchen characters.

The “Jin jiehao ciyaobianpu ciqi” 金界壕磁窑边堡瓷器 (Porcelains unearthed in the ruins of the kiln near the fortress of the Jin dynasty): In 2019, the Institute of Cultural Relics of Baotou City, Inner Mongolia, conducted an archaeological excavation in the kiln ruins near the fortress of the Jin dynasty located in Ciyao Village, Wuchuan County, Höhhot. During the excavation, seven porcelain items, including white porcelain bowls and plates, were discovered. These porcelains featured identical auspicious ink calligraphy in Jurchen script on their round feet. The phonetic reconstruction of the character was *sabi, which is likely related to the ancient Xianbei 鲜卑 language. Sun (2021), who interpreted the porcelains, speculated that the original meaning of this character was “lion” and the auspicious meaning was derived from it. Furthermore, this discovery also provided conclusive evidence that reaffirms the location where the porcelain was unearthed as a former garrison place of the Jin dynasty.

The Chinese-Jurchen Glossary is widely regarded as the most important document for Jurchen study. This document is a comprehensive vocabulary compiled by the Bureau of Translators, covering both written and spoken Jurchen language. It was compiled during the Ming dynasty and serves as a crucial resource for scholars seeking to understand the Jurchen language. Several works focused on the reorganization, and researches of this material have been published. A revised version and Jurchen dictionary compiled by Liu ed. (2016) is an essential reference for scholars in the field. This book is based on Luo Fucheng’s 罗福成 edition and has undergone meticulous proofreading, incorporating texts from the Berlin National Library and Tōyō Bunko in Japan. It is considered the most comprehensive edition of the book. In addition, the editors of this book collated and organized the Jurchen characters from the text, resulting in the compilation of a Jurchen dictionary containing 823 words. Furthermore, the book includes several research articles on Jurchen script and text by editor Liu, along with some translated works. Notably, the book presents new material including Jurchen words that were not found either in Jin Qicong’s (1984) dictionary or in the Chinese-Jurchen Glossary, providing valuable resources for scholars engaged in Jurchen studies. Another notable achievement is a doctoral dissertation by Guo (2020). This dissertation relies on the script series Chinese-Barbarian Glossaries 华夷译语, which was compiled by the Bureau of Translators during the Ming dynasty and encompasses Zazi 杂字 (miscellaneous characters) and Laiwen 来文 (official documents). The author meticulously organizes the 344 transliterated Chinese characters in pinyin order based on their initials and rhymes. These characters are then combined with the words in Zazi and their corresponding Manchu equivalents. In addition, the author provides a comprehensive summary of the Jurchen syllables represented by Chinese characters. This work not only explains the pronunciation and usage of Jurchen words but also delves into the case system of the Jurchen language.

In addition, scholars have also made advancements in re-examining existing Jurchen documents. According to the Jurchen paper documents, Aisin Gioro (2001, 2002a, 2004, 2009) has undertaken further systematic collation and research on a Jurchen textbook discovered in Xi’an Beilin 西安碑林. Moreover, several fragments written in Jurchen script were discovered in the Tangut collection found in the Khara-Khoto ruins, which are currently preserved in the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, Russian Academy of Sciences. Russian scholars Kara, Kychanov and Starikov (1972) discovered these documents while cataloging the Tangut collection, and they represented the only known cursive documents found thus far. Among these fragments, there is a Tangut-Jurchen bilingual cursive fragment. Sun (2008) has examined these fragments, with a specific focus on the six relatively intact ones. Through her deciphering efforts, she determined that Fragment No. 3775 contained records of historical events spanning from 1027 to the Da’an 大安 period (1209–1211).

New progress in the study of Jurchen language and script

In contrast to the rapid development observed in the study of Jurchen language and script during the 20th century, research in this field has experienced a period of relative calm and slower progress since the beginning of the 21st century. This phenomenon can be attributed to the scarcity of newly discovered materials, which has led to a limited number of breakthroughs in the past two decades.

A notable accomplishment is the book titled Jindai Nüzhenyu 金代女真语 (The Jurchen Language of the Jin Dynasty) authored by Sun (2004a, 2016). This book is an important study of the phonology and vocabulary of the Jurchen language in the Jin dynasty. The author extensively utilized a set of Jurchen-Chinese transliterated characters extracted from historical classics of the Song and Yuan dynasties, including Jinshi, to delve into the Jurchen phonetic system and the rules governing syllable combinations. In addition, the book includes annotations of Jurchen people, geographical names, and phrases collected from Jinshi and other documents, along with an index of Jurchen vocabulary. This comprehensive work provides a valuable corpus for comparative studies on Tungusic languages and the historical exploration of ancient Tungusic languages. Although several scholars have dedicated their efforts to advancing Jurchen language research, progress has been constrained by the scarcity of deciphered inscription texts, making the study of Jurchen language a challenging task. Works such as Aisin Gioro (2002b, 2002c, 2005a, 2005b, 2006), Sarashina (2013), Sun (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004b), Hasibateer (2008), Li (2010), Pevnov (2012), and Liu (2019) have contributed to a detailed examination of the linguistic features of this language.

The comparative study of Jurchen and Manchu language has broadened our understanding of the Manchu-Tungus language group. In Qi’s (2016) study, the inscriptions of the “Stele in the Yongning Temple” were compared with the Manchu language in the Jianzhou 建州 region during the Qing dynasty. The study discussed the historical evolution of these two languages and examined the relationship between them. Guo et al. (2018) conducted a study that summarized and compared the phonetics and methods of character creation in Jurchen script, as well as the Manchu language and script. Otherwise, annotations and comparisons were conducted on Jurchen script and Manchu script found in the manuscripts preserved in Berlin State Library and Tōyō Bunko in Japan. These comparisons revealed the close relationship, historical evolution, and differences between Jurchen and Manchu languages. Wang (2019) edited a comprehensive dictionary that serves as a lexicon for both Jurchen and Manchu languages, allowing for easy reference and comparison with Chinese. The dictionary includes the Jurchen and Manchu scripts along with their corresponding Chinese characters. The volume is primarily organized based on the Jurchen script, following a phonetic order and providing annotations in Chinese characters.

Despite the limited progress in Jurchen language research, there has been some advancement in the study of Jurchen script. He and Mu (2002) provide an analysis of the evolution of the Jurchen language, writing, and culture during the Jin dynasty. The authors focus on comparing and examining the content, vocabulary, and writing style of two Jurchen stele inscriptions, The “Aotun Liangbi jianyin bei” 奥屯良弼饯饮碑 (Stele commemorating a picnic held by Aotun Liangbi) and The “Aotun Liangbi shi bei” 奥屯良弼诗碑 (Stele of a poem by Aotun Liangbi). Sun (2004c) categorized the patterns of Jurchen script creation into three distinct types. The first type involves transformation, where modifications are applied to Chinese and Khitan scripts, resulting in either phonetic or semantic readings of the characters. The second type is the derivation, where new scripts are generated by being derived from pre-existing scripts that share interrelated meanings and connotations. The third type is borrowing, which involves the adoption of characters based on their phonetic or semantic properties in Chinese characters. Another focal point of Jurchen script research revolves around the characteristics of both large and small Jurchen scripts. In another paper, Sun (2019) presents the finding that Jurchen script is a hybrid writing system. Jurchen small scripts were actually a script reform that added phonemic elements and affixes to Jurchen scripts. The ideographic Jurchen large script is often replaced by the phonetic small script when recording word stems. Furthermore, the ideographic large script undergoes a transformation into predominantly syllabic scripts, influenced by the phonetic borrowing homophonic elements. In addition, there is a notable tendency for existing Chinese characters to transition into syllabic scripts.

Digitization of Jurchen script and documents

In 2009, a proposal for coding Jurchen script was submitted to the International Organization for Standardization. The proposal was led by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of China in collaboration with experts from the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Prof. Jing Yongshi 景永时 from North Minzu University. The character set presented in the proposal was primarily based on the Juechen Dictionary edited by Jin Qicong, with further refinement through reference to the Chinese regular script and the “Stele inscribing the names of successful jinshi candidates,” where the characters are relatively clear. The proposed character set includes a collection of 1376 Jurchen characters and 49 Jurchen radicals. These characters are organized into four distinct columns: number, Jurchen script, stroke count, and Jurchen script phonetics and semantics. The columns are arranged sequentially from left to right.

In September 2009, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology organized a team of experts to revise the proposal based on the recommendations of the WG2 (the international standardization working group for the coded character set) panel of reviewers. The revisions focused on improving the character table, incorporating pronunciations derived from the Jurchen Dictionary, and rectifying errors in the character list. The revised proposal was then submitted to the 55th WG2 meeting held in Tokyo. Approximately one week before the conference, the expert group received additional suggestions from Andrew West regarding modifications for encoding Jurchen characters (WG2n3696). In response, the experts from China provided a written response (WG2n3720). Presently, experts from various countries have submitted more than 10 proposals to the International Organization for Standardization for Jurchen encoding. The most recent proposal on Jurchen encoding was submitted by Andrew West on March 15th, 2023 (WG2n5207).

The China Zhonghuaziku 中华字库 (Database of scripts in China) Project was initiated by the National Press and Publication Administration in 2011. The 18th package of the project, titled “Collection and Arrangement of Ancient Minority Scripts and Creations of Character Database,” aimed to develop a character database and input method solutions for ancient minority scripts. As part of the project, more than 20 authentic documents were collected, approximately 200 pages of Jurchen texts were scanned, and around 1400 characters were extracted. This project represents the first comprehensive collation of existing documents and the original form of Jurchen scripts using modern technology, providing scholars with a systematic and reliable set of characters. In addition, it contributes to the establishment of a database containing the original characters. The Jurchen documents undergo scanning and conversion into electronic files following a standardized protocol. They are then cataloged and managed appropriately to establish a digital database. Furthermore, the project has developed a unified input method for Jurchen scripts based on the extensive character set.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This program is supported by the Discipline Team Support Program of Beijing Language and Culture University (grant number 2023YGF11) and National Social Science Fund of China (grant number 23BTQ042).