Assessment for Learning Practices: International Students’ Experiences in Chinese Higher Education

Understanding AfL

This study is informed by the AfL concept. Many HEIs have shifted their focus to AfL, which has gained increasing international recognition in policy and practice across many regions, including the Asia-Pacific (DeLuca et al., 2018; Klenowski, 2009; Swaffield, 2011; Wu et al., 2021). However, there is still debate on the effective implementation of AfL in many countries and institutions. For example, Wu et al. (2021) noted that AfL has been a key focus in Chinese HEIs, especially in English as a foreign language (EFL) class. Despite AfL being promoted at the policy level to encourage students’ active participation in assessment, their study revealed a disconnect between reform goals and classroom practice, as well as between teachers’ practices and values (Wu et al., 2021). This indicates the need for alignment between HEIs’ AfL plans and teachers’ ability to implement them successfully.

Many scholars have provided various definitions of AfL, but they all agree that AfL is a teaching and learning practice aimed solely at improving students’ learning or performance (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Black et al., 2006; Brown, 2019; Flórez & Sammons, 2013). For instance, Klenowski (2009, p. 264) defined AfL as “part of everyday practice by students, teachers, and peers that seeks, reflects upon, and responds to information from dialogue, demonstration, and observation in ways that enhance ongoing learning.”

The Assessment Reform Group (ARG, 2002) also identified ten principles of assessment for learning.

AfL is part of effective planning;

As outlined in the principles of AfL, this approach emphasizes the use of various learning techniques and strategies that promote effective teaching and learning. It primarily relies on student-centered and interactive methods, which encourage student participation and enhance students’ learning and academic performance (Black et al., 2006; Boud & Falchikov, 2005; Flórez & Sammons, 2013; Hawe & Dixon, 2017; Marshall & Jane Drummond, 2006; Schellekens et al., 2021) through various means such as questioning, peer evaluation, and self-assessment (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Brown, 2019; DeLuca et al., 2018; Swaffield, 2011; Wu et al., 2021). It often begins with careful planning to assess students’ current levels, define lesson objectives, and select appropriate methods (Swaffield, 2011). In such a way, AfL has transformed teachers’ and students’ views of summative assessment.

While AfL is typically seen as a way to support and enhance students’ learning, summative assessment is often primarily used for accountability and ranking purposes (Schellekens et al., 2021). However, with AfL, even summative assessments are now aimed at improving learning rather than just judging students’ performance (Flórez & Sammons, 2013; Marshall & Jane Drummond, 2006; Schellekens et al., 2021; Taras, 2010). This relies on the idea that assessment affects students’ learning, including their interest, motivation, class participation, and understanding of tasks (Schellekens et al., 2021). Additionally, as mentioned earlier, effective AfL practices require careful planning and professional skills to promote students’ participation and learning, ultimately fostering students’ autonomy or independent learning (ARG, 2002; Marshall & Jane Drummond, 2006).

AfL and International Students

Many scholars have studied international students’ perceptions of the assessment practices used by their host universities (Cho et al., 2021; Van Rompay-Bartels & Geessink, 2023; Ryan & Henderson, 2018; Warner & Miller, 2015). For example, Warner and Miller (2015) examined international students’ perceptions of assessment in Australia and found that feedback primarily focuses on correcting errors rather than providing ongoing guidance. However, the study showed that students prefer formative feedback that helps them improve their knowledge and skills. Moreover, the study highlights students’ concerns about negative comments and their difficulty understanding lecturers’ feedback, with only 29% of students fully comprehending the feedback. The results suggest that educators should provide thoughtful feedback, taking into account its nature, delivery method, and impact on the development of international students. Furthermore, Cho et al. (2021) reviewed studies on the management of Asian international students at American universities. The research examined students’ motivation, perceptions of assessments, and learning methods across different disciplines and found that students’ self-motivation positively influences their views of assessments. This positive attitude also encourages students to adopt learning strategies associated with strong academic performance.

Moreover, Ryan and Henderson (2018) examined two student variables, citizenship backgrounds (domestic and international) and grade expectations (higher or lower than anticipated), emphasizing that feedback is essential for enhancing learning strategies and academic performance. Their study also revealed that international students are more likely to perceive feedback as discouraging, upsetting, and critical compared to domestic students. Additionally, students who receive lower-than-expected grades and negative feedback tend to feel sad, ashamed, and angry more often than those who get higher-than-expected results. The study suggests that instructors should be mindful of their biases and consider students’ experiences when designing assessment and feedback processes.

Research indicates that students’ perceptions of feedback are influenced by their personal and cultural backgrounds (Van Rompay-Bartels & Geessink, 2023; Zhou et al., 2023). Van Rompay-Bartels and Geessink (2023) argued that cultural background, or bias, significantly influences how students give and interpret peer feedback. This requires teachers to look beyond domestic cultural values, as these may not fully account for international students’ backgrounds and experiences (Zhou et al., 2023). Furthermore, Shahijan et al. (2016) suggested that perceived brand orientation, intercultural friendships, and university reputation significantly affect course satisfaction and students’ intentions to continue studying. This suggests that educators should understand students’ educational identities and epistemological beliefs to enhance the feedback process. In this line, Bloxham et al. (2011) emphasized the importance of assessment criteria and clear communication in boosting students’ performance.

Overall, various factors influence international students’ perceptions of AfL practices, which in turn affect their academic performance. Cho et al. (2021) argue that self-determined motivation influences students’ adaptive assessment beliefs, leading to the adoption of different self-regulatory learning strategies and improved academic performance. Furthermore, Bearman and Ajjawi (2021) noted that using explicit marking criteria significantly enhances students’ academic performance.

Research Design

The article used a case study, a research design employed to explore a phenomenon in its real-life setting (Priya, 2021; Yin, 2003, p. 2009). It is frequently used in social science research because it provides a thorough and detailed examination of a phenomenon using any data collection method (Crowe et al., 2011; Priya, 2021). It is important for answering ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ questions and is open to the “use of theory or conceptual categories that guide the research and analysis of data” (Meyer, 2001, p. 331). De Vaus (2001) argues that a case study research unit of analysis can be an organization, a community, a household, a family, an individual, an event, or even a decision (see also Priya, 2021). Different research questions can also lead to different cases or units of analysis. In this article, AfL strategies and international students are the cases or units of analysis. Furthermore, Yin (2009) emphasizes the importance of context (i.e., a Chinese university in this article), as a case study is characterized by blurred boundaries between the case and its context.

Sample and Sampling Procedure

Purposive sampling was used to select 13 master's and doctoral international students from a sample Chinese university. Purposive sampling is a non-probability method in which researchers select participants based on their knowledge, skills, and characteristics relevant to the study (Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024). The university was selected for its high quality and for the presence of international students in English-taught programs. It ranks among the top three universities in the region and within the top 100 nationally. It has many international students studying in English at the master's and doctoral levels. Additionally, the same approach was used to select 13 master's and doctoral students from the Global South who have completed at least one year of study at the university (see Table 1 for participants’ profiles). Students from the Global South were chosen because of their numbers at the university and their socio-economic backgrounds (i.e., developing countries). They were also selected from education or related fields to ensure they could discuss AfL practices, although the definition of AfL was provided during the interview to jog their memory.

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Table 1.

Participants’ Demographic Information.

Pseudonyms	Gender	Country of Origin	Program of Study	Specialization
Frank	M	Nigeria	PhD	Applied psychology
John	M	Lesotho	PhD	Comparative education
Saba	F	Eritrea	Master's	Economics and management
Ahmad	M	Pakistan	PhD	Educational technology
Janet	F	Tanzania	PhD	Mathematics education
Chris	M	Thailand	Master's	Curriculum and instruction
Sarah	F	Colombia	PhD	Teacher education
Nancy	F	Tanzania	PhD	Principles of education
Allen	M	Rwanda	PhD	Curriculum and instruction
Jasmin	F	Ghana	PhD	Educational leadership and management
William	M	Nigeria	Master's	Higher education studies
Saliha	F	Pakistan	PhD	Comparative education
Mike	M	Bangladesh	Master's	Economics of education

Data Collection and Analysis

Data for this article were collected through in-depth interviews with 13 master's and doctoral students studying at the sample university. In-depth interviews were used because they were found to be convenient for conducting “intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents” to explore their ideas, perspectives, and experiences on AfL practices at their university (Boyce & Neale, 2006, p. 2). Participants were asked questions about the assessment practices used at their university and their perceptions of those practices. Specifically, the interview addressed questions such as the assessment criteria employed, student participation, and teachers’ support/feedback. Participants were asked to draw from their experiences in one or more classes to gather rich data. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participants’ consent for thorough data analysis.

The data collected were analyzed thematically, following Braun and Clarke's six phases of thematic analysis: familiarizing with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis proved useful for systematically categorizing and analyzing data related to participants’ perceptions and experiences. First, we transcribed the recordings to ensure meticulous coding and data analysis. We read and re-read the data, discussing the ideas presented and their placement into codes. After agreeing on how to code the data based on the research questions, we generated initial codes and grouped them into two themes, creating one central theme for each research question (Table 2). This was followed by reviewing, defining, and naming the themes. The two themes are titled: (1) assessment practices used in Chinese higher education, and (2) international students’ perceptions of assessment practices in Chinese higher education. However, given its complexity, we decided to split the second theme into four sub-themes: assessment practice, criteria and communication of assessment, students’ participation and peer collaboration, and teachers’ support and feedback. Finally, we wrote the article by analyzing the findings in relation to the research questions and the theoretical frameworks. In doing so, we aim to produce a detailed description of the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

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Table 2.

Sample Thematic Structure.

Data Extract	Coded for	Theme(s)
Factors such as clarity in instructions/expectations, alignment with course content, and students’ effort and understanding are important in effectively completing any assessment method. Clear communication and evaluation criteria help students meet teachers’ expectations and even achieve better grades. (Frank)	–Clarity of assessment instructions and communication	–Criteria and communication of assessment
We need professors to tell us what they are looking for in our work, including the type of work (for example, empirical or theoretical) they want us to do and the word count. They should also clearly communicate to the students the number of marks the assessment method holds. For example, they should tell us how many marks students get from class participation or class attendance precisely. Some professors are not happy when students make a mistake, but they don’t even give students clear instructions. (John)	–Instructions about the type and mark of assessment	–Criteria and communication of assessment

Ethical Considerations

The article adhered to proper ethical guidelines based on the core principles and applications of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice outlined in the 1978 Belmont Report. Emphasis was also placed on safeguarding participants’ rights and privacy through a consent form that provided relevant information and ensured comprehension, enabling participants to make an informed and voluntary decision to participate. Pseudonyms were used to protect participants’ identities and confidentiality.

Assessment Practices Used

This section addresses the first research question regarding the AfL practices used in Chinese HEIs. The findings suggest that different assessment practices, such as final papers, presentations, article reviews, exams, and group projects, are used at the sample university, depending on teachers’ teaching methods and course content. For example, Sarah said:

We use a variety of assessment methods, such as tests and course papers. Well, I still think that the teachers offered some support because, at first, we were not sure we were supposed to take a test. Then they explained this [its relevance], and kept updating us about the test requirements, including the parts we should be studying. Moreover, the teachers were very helpful in terms of offering their support and feedback (particularly when we were in class) whenever we needed it. (Sarah)

In addition, Allen noted that some teachers use class discussion, presentations, and questions.

Teachers use learner-centered methods like student presentations, probing questions, and class discussions. They check students’ learning through assignments, the quality of submissions, and students’ participation. Presentations and assessments also serve as checkpoints for students’ academic performance. (Allen)

The assessment methods mentioned by Sarah and Allen can be used for formative and summative assessment. This suggests that the assessment's purpose is crucial for these practices to qualify as AfL, which aims to enhance students’ learning or performance through questioning, feedback, and peer and self-assessment. Sarah's and Allen's excerpts have partly addressed this issue, as they stated that teachers were constructive in offering support and feedback, and in using assessments to understand students’ learning and performance. In this context, John mentioned teachers’ use of assignments, while Nancy added class discussions as a tool for AfL.

Teachers often identify the limitations of student work and offer suggestions. They sometimes suggest more high-quality articles and books for students to read and use in their assignments. Some teachers are more focused on the format and style of students’ work, which are often taken normally but make a big difference to students’ work. These include citation, referencing, grammar, etc. However, some teachers just put the mark, and we do not even know where to revise and where to improve. (John)

John's and Nancy's quotations suggest that many teachers provide feedback and encourage student participation, which are essential parts of AfL practices. This emphasizes that AfL is linked to teachers’ professional skills; without teachers’ efforts to involve students and provide feedback, AfL would remain limited to the policy level without a significant impact on students’ learning.

Additionally, the data indicated that assessment activities such as article reviews, final papers, and group projects help students become more independent learners. However, participants like John, Frank, and Mike also emphasized that achieving independent learning for students requires teacher support and clear, informative feedback to learn from their mistakes and deepen their understanding of the subject. Therefore, teachers must establish a means of interaction, whether through question and answer or feedback, to help students identify “where to revise and where to improve,” as John indicated. Additionally, John's idea of focusing on “where to revise and where to improve” emphasizes students’ view of assessment, including summative assessment, as an opportunity for learning rather than just a means of grading. This indicates a formative use of summative assessment.

Perceptions of International Students

This section answers the second research question by examining how international students view the assessment practices of Chinese HEIs. In discussing their perceptions of the assessment practices at their university, the study participants focused on four interconnected points: (a) the focus of the assessment methods used; (b) the criteria for these assessments and how they are communicated to students; (c) student participation; and (d) teachers’ support and feedback. The students believed that these four points determine whether assessment practices aim to enhance students’ learning or are merely for grading.