Paramedicine as a (K)NUTS profession: Rethinking knowledge,stress and professional becoming

Abstract

Paramedicine occupies a distinctive position within contemporary healthcare, characterised by complexity, unpredictability and moral intensity. Unlike clinical professions operating in controlled environments, paramedics deliver care within dynamic, uncertain and often resource-limited contexts. While these operational challenges of paramedicine are well acknowledged, the philosophical and conceptual dimensions of paramedic practice remain comparatively underexplored. This paper proposes a reconceptualisation of paramedicine as a ‘KNUTS’ profession – extending Lupien's NUTS stress model (Novelty, Unpredictability, Threat, Sense of lack of control) by adding ‘knowledge’ as a fifth, epistemic dimension. This framework is used as a heuristic to explore the epistemological, ontological and existential nature of paramedic work. Using a conceptual analytic approach, the paper synthesises contemporary paramedicine literature with philosophical, sociological and educational theory. Key concepts from Heidegger, Schön, Polanyi, Dall’Alba and Lave and Wenger, are selectively engaged to explore how knowledge, uncertainty, judgement and identity interact in the everydayness of paramedic work. Knowledge emerges as the epistemic core of paramedic practice, legitimising autonomy and shaping professional identity. Novelty and unpredictability define the profession's lived reality, requiring practitioners to engage in rapid, situated judgement and ethical decision-making under uncertainty. Threat and control reflect the profession's existential tensions, as paramedics navigate vulnerability, accountability and limited autonomy within complex systems. Together, these interdependent dimensions reveal paramedicine as a practice of continual becoming shaped by embodied expertise, ethical reflection and adaptive expertise. Understanding paramedicine as a KNUTS profession provides a theoretically grounded lens to conceptualise its unique demands. Clarifying the heuristic use of a biologically derived stress model within a socio-cultural domain strengthens the framework's analytical contribution and highlights implications for education, leadership, policy and workforce wellbeing. This perspective carries implications for professional education, policy and leadership – emphasising the cultivation of reflective, ethically grounded practitioners capable of thriving amid complexity.

Keywords

paramedicine professional identity philosophy of practice uncertainty adaptive expertise

Introduction

In contemporary healthcare, paramedicine occupies a distinctive position defined not only by its operational reach but by the unique epistemological and situational demands placed on its practitioners. Unlike many clinical roles situated in comparatively controlled environments, paramedics deliver care in unpredictable, mobile and often resource-limited settings.^1,2 Clinical decisions must often be made with incomplete information, under time pressure, and in the presence of physical, emotional and ethical complexity. These features of work – uncertainty, exposure to risk and moral tensions – are well recognised within the context of the emergency room³ with military personnel, and with other first responders.⁴ What remains less clearly articulated is how paramedics come to know, act and be professionals in environments where protocols are frequently insufficient, outcomes are uncertain and accountability is retrospective. Addressing this gap requires conceptual and theoretically positioned inquiry capable of engaging with the complexity of everyday paramedic practice.

Calls for increased conceptual and philosophical scrutiny are intimately tied with establishing and extending paramedic research agendas. As Pap and colleagues⁵ highlight, consensus studies informing agendas are often the first step of the process. Indeed, consensus studies from Australia and New Zealand,^5,6 the Netherlands,^7,8 Ireland,⁹ and Canada¹⁰ all echo the need for paramedic researchers to be more explicit in declaring a theoretical position. Other scholarly commentary has been shared, encouraging the inclusion and use of theoretical frameworks to structure, interpret and understand complex phenomena.^11,12 As such, it is important that appropriate approaches are explored to achieve a deeper knowledge and understanding of the everydayness of paramedic experiences.

From NUTS to KNUTS: clarifying the theoretical move

As a heuristic point of departure, this paper draws on Lupiens’ NUTS¹³ model of stress. Originally developed within neurobiological and psychological research, the NUTS model describes the explicit and implicit stressors that can cause stress to an individual. For a situation to be perceived as stressful, an individual must interpret one or more of the following elements: (a) a sense of Novelty, (b) the Unpredictability of the context or situation, (c) a Threat to one's ego, and a Sense that there is no control over a situation.¹³ This model has been used to study resilience in older adults,¹⁴ to describe chronic pain experiences¹⁵ and investigate youth mindsets¹⁶ to name a few.

In this paper, NUTS is not applied as a biological explanatory model. Instead, it is deliberately repurposed as an organising heuristic to explore how similar dimensions structure the experience of paramedic practice. To address the limitations of applying a biologically grounded model within a professional and epistemic domain, we explicitly extend the framework by adding knowledge as a fifth foundational element. This addition foregrounds the epistemological work that underpins professional judgement and distinguishes paramedicine from a purely reactive stress response. Through this expanded lens, we critically explore the profession's unique characteristics, drawing eclectically on philosophical and theories of education, as well as sociological and psychological perspectives. In so doing, we outline essential features of everyday knowing, doing and being in paramedicine while demonstrating how traditionally incongruent theoretical frameworks can be combined to explain facets of complex phenomena. We aim to move beyond a descriptive account of paramedic work toward a metaphysical interpretation that acknowledges the profession's complexity, its emotional and cognitive demands, and its contribution to modern understandings of professional identity. The resulting KNUTS framework is therefore not presented as a unified theory, but as a conceptual lens that allows examination of how stress laden conditions intersect with professional knowing, identity and becoming.

Knowledge: the epistemic core of becoming

While not originally included in Lupien's model, knowledge is the silent architect of paramedic practice. Contemporary characterisations of paramedicine highlight its pluripotency,¹⁷ requiring practitioners to draw on an expansive and integrated body of clinical, procedural, ethical and situational knowledge. This includes tacit knowledge developed through experience, the embodiment of practical wisdom (phronesis) and the ability to navigate uncertainty using both evidence-based reasoning and intuitive judgement. The ability to draw on such practical wisdom, in the face of complexity and the pursuit of positive outcome, may be a hallmark of paramedic clinical practice. As we will discuss, the nature and reality of paramedic practice requires a centrality of individual values, whilst the complexity of practice must be skilfully considered and navigated in order to amalgamate knowing, doing and being.¹⁸

Friedson's¹⁹ classic conception of professionalism as grounded in epistemic authority reinforces why this silent ‘K’ must be foregrounded: it legitimises the paramedic's autonomy and underwrites their claim to professional status. Rather than functioning as the derisive ‘Johannes factotum’ – a pejorative term historically used to describe unfocused generalists – paramedics exemplify integrative generalism: the capacity to synthesise diverse knowledge forms in unpredictable contexts.^20,21 Concepts such as Schön's reflection-in-action,²² Polanyi's tacit knowledge²³ and Klein's recognition-primed decision-making²⁴ explain rapid, situated judgment, while Weick's theories of sensemaking and high-reliability organizing²⁵ clarify how teams coordinate effectively amid ambiguity. When situated within the Dreyfus model of skill acquisition,²⁶ Ryle's distinction between knowing-how and knowing-that,²⁷ Flyvbjerg's concept of phronesis,²⁸ and Lave and Wenger's theory of communities of practice,²⁹ these forms of knowing situate skill development and professional identity as processes that evolve over time. Intertwined, these perspectives support an epistemology of paramedicine as broad, interconnected knowing – integrating theory, embodied skill and team cognition – and justify curricula and research that cultivate range, reflection and mechanism-aware practice.

Novelty: dwelling in the unfamiliar

The essence of paramedic work lies in its confrontation with the unknown. Every call-out represents a unique constellation of variables: unfamiliar patients, uncertain diagnoses, unstable environments. Heidegger's³⁰ concept of thrownness (Geworfenheit) captures this reality: paramedics are perpetually cast into unfolding situations with little forewarning, forced to act before they fully understand.

From an ontological perspective, professional development therefore involves learning not only what to do, but how to be in unfamiliar situations.³¹ For paramedics, this means learning to respond wisely and ethically within environments where protocols may be insufficient. Expertise therefore develops through participation in complexity – not through simulation alone, but through the lived entanglement with real-world ambiguity.³²

Far from being a burden, novelty is integral to paramedic identity. McCann's interrogation of the ‘adrenaline junkie’ trope³³ reveals a professional ethos that valorises adaptability and seeks challenge not for its own sake, but as a crucible for growth. Each novel encounter becomes a moment of ontological formation, shaping how paramedics understand themselves, their role and their capacity to respond.

Unpredictability: the ontology of uncertainty

Where novelty concerns unfamiliarity, unpredictability captures the instability of what is already in motion. Paramedicine is saturated with uncertainty amid clinical trajectories, social interactions and system pressures that evolve in real time. Outcomes are rarely linear, and decision making must occur within moving frames of reference. Heidegger's³⁰ notion of being-in-the-world (Dasein) situates paramedics as actors who must make sense of unfolding realities from within, not above or outside them.

In such conditions, decision-making is as much about dwelling in uncertainty as resolving it. Keats’ literary notion of ‘negative capability’³⁴^{, p.57} – the capacity to remain effective in uncertainty without premature closure – offers a useful metaphor for this professional stance. In practice, paramedics must act decisively while tolerating doubt, holding multiple possibilities in tension. Lupien¹³ reminds us that unpredictability triggers biological stress responses, compounding the cognitive demands of the work.

However, learning in such environments is necessarily embodied, relational and situated. It is not just about acquiring more information but cultivating the capacity to hold ambiguity while still engaging with care.^31,32 The ability to exist comfortably on the boundary between knowing and not-knowing, and to still be able to act in-line with one's moral and professional responsibilities,^26,35 is part of paramedic becoming; learning to be amid flux.

Threat to ego: professional and personal vulnerability

Threat within paramedicine extends beyond physical danger. Alongside well-documented exposure to volatile, high-risk environments,^36,37 paramedics encounter pervasive yet less visible psychological and professional threats, manifested through moral injury, blame cultures and identity instability. In addition, the fear of litigation, registration loss or reputational harm contributes to a risk ontology that haunts practice. Paramedics are expected to exercise autonomy while also anticipating retrospective scrutiny. This cultivates a culture of hyper-vigilance where ego is constantly under threat – not from arrogance, but from professional exposure.

From an existential perspective, such conditions expose paramedics to ongoing identity negotiation rather than stable professional affirmation. Here, Heidegger's concept of authenticity³⁰ and Sartre's idea of identity as a struggle for recognition³⁸ intersect. As the profession evolves, taking on roles in primary care, mental health and palliative settings, the coherence of professional identity is challenged, both from within oneself and through the eyes of others.³⁹ The traditional hero narrative, rooted in acute, high-stakes intervention,³³ does not easily accommodate these newer roles. Indeed, the issues may extend into ambulance practice, as the expectation of knowing and doing in the context of emergency situations, diverge from the everyday experience of being, and acting, in the world.

Sense of control: negotiated autonomy in a system of constraints

Autonomy, paradoxically, is both the hallmark and the challenge of paramedic practice. Lupien argues that a sense of control mitigates stress,¹³ yet the nature of paramedicine often limits control over time, space and outcome. Bringing together Heidegger's concept of authenticity,³⁰ and Dall’Alba's emphasis on judgement⁴⁰ suggests that control in paramedic work is not a matter of domination, but of alignment – aligning one's actions with professional values amid experiential, situational, organisation and systemic complexity and constraint.

The experience of autonomy, or agency, in everyday paramedic practice could be viewed as paradoxical. Paramedics operate in increasingly diverse areas of complex adaptive health and care systems. As such, the everyday experience at a systemic level is one that is embodied by interdependence of services within these systems. Ambulance paramedics exercise little control over the timing and location of their work in complex systems, for example, during offload delays at hospital (‘ramping’).⁴¹ Research into paramedic autonomy from an organisational perspective also reveals difficulties faced in paramedic everyday experiences, with little autonomy to effect organisational change, and organisational policy and structures which at times constrain individual practice.⁴² The response model itself is premised on a reduced level of situational autonomy, with paramedics dispatched to locations and cases determined externally, leaving little agency over the environments in which their practice occurs. Conversely, paramedics may be seen as having the ultimate autonomy in individual patient contacts, the sole clinician responsible for the effective approach, understanding, management and onward care of individuals at their most vulnerable. Perhaps, more than a lack of autonomy or sense of control as being a stressor, paramedics’ experiences of this paradox may increase the existential strain on the everyday experience of being a paramedic.

As Campbell et al. observe,⁴³ ethical dilemmas in paramedic practice rarely present clear-cut answers; responses are dynamic and interdependent, requiring moral agency and flexibility. Sommer reinforced that control emerges through experience.³² Competence is not simply knowing what to do but knowing when to act, when to pause and how to balance competing priorities in real time. Situational control is temporally located in the everyday experience of the paramedic. Accordingly, the ability to establish situational control through confidence, calmness and communication is foundational to paramedic professional identity.^44,45 It is through the assertion of local, contextual control that paramedics establish professional confidence and legitimacy. To exist comfortably in everydayness, paramedics must feel capable of establishing sufficient control over unfolding situations, even when outcomes remain uncertain. In the midst of their clinical work, paramedics work to establish a sense of situational control; afterwards, reflective engagement with how control was enacted allows practitioners to reconcile their decisions and integrate experience into ongoing professional development.⁴⁶ In this way, situational control underpins everyday coping within the profession.

Entangled realities: interdependence of (K)NUTS dimensions

The dimensions of Knowledge, Novelty, Unpredictability, Threat, and Sense of control are not discrete; they are entangled in everyday practice. Each clinical encounter, however routine or exceptional, contributes to the cumulative development of situated expertise: knowledge that is embodied, relational and context-dependent. Conceptualisation, and exploration, of paramedic work should shift from a focus on extreme-mundane paradoxes,¹⁷ and instead recognise the visceral, complex and meaningful experience of paramedic everydayness. Rather than being codified solely in textbooks or guidelines, paramedic practice is forged through experience, shaped by presence, iterative decision-making, and the demands of acting under pressure in diverse and unpredictable environments. As such, paramedic everydayness is far from mundane, and should be the focus of education, research and practice.

If we reflect on some of the key issues outlined within research and practice agendas for paramedicine internationally,^5–9 we may demonstrate how the KNUTS framework may enable deeper exploration of phenomena. Consider, for example, the challenges identified in paramedic education and training, including the difficulty of developing tertiary curricula that prepare learners for uncertainty, the persistent gap in practice-readiness, pedagogical approaches that privilege technical certainty over judgement and the limited support provided to practice educators navigating complex clinical learning environments. To conceptualise paramedicine as a (K)NUTS profession necessitates a re-evaluation of how we educate and support those in the field. Curricula must explicitly engage with uncertainty, emotional labour – the often invisible work of regulating emotion, sustaining empathy and maintaining professional presence under pressure- and professional identity formation, not as peripheral concerns but as essential components of competent practice. Drawing on simulation education literature that foregrounds ambiguity, uncertainty and reflective learning over technical mastery alone,⁴⁷ simulation-based education should reflect the moral and operational ambiguity inherent in the work, incorporating scenarios that require not only technical accuracy but ethical reasoning, interprofessional and intraprofessional negotiation, situational judgement and self-awareness. Practice-education offers the opportunity to develop learners with a focus on their becoming a professional, as opposed to purely knowledge and skill acquisition.⁴⁰ Awareness of the essential nature of the domains of the (K)NUTS framework in the consciousness of practice educators, may allow for the movement of knowledge from tacit to explicit.

Role transition, both in terms of the changing role of the ambulance paramedic, and in terms of paramedics’ movement into alternative roles across healthcare systems, is an omnipresent focus within discourse,⁴⁸ and practice and research agendas.^5–9 Again, the (K)NUTS framework can enable us to explore and understand related issues. Understanding role change, including scope of practice and wider system implications, requires recognition and understanding of transitions. Considering the interrelationship of the (K)NUTS dimensions contextually, one can understand transitions in relation to where paramedics are experientially located (knowing, doing and being), and where they need to be (becoming) to facilitate role transition. In enabling deeper conceptualisation of the nature of paramedicine, the (K)NUTS framework can support system, organisational, and individual transition promoting patient safety, system efficiency and staff wellbeing.

At the structural level, policy and leadership must account for the sustained emotional and existential demands placed on paramedics. While clinical risk cannot be entirely eliminated, it can be more effectively contextualised through systems that support professional judgement rather than relying solely on procedural compliance. We do not suggest that paramedic systems uniformly prioritise compliance over judgement; rather, the balance between these approaches is highly contextual and varies across jurisdictions, organisational cultures and regulatory environments. However, in settings where policies, performance frameworks or risk-management strategies disproportionately emphasise standardisation and rule adherence, professional adaptability and system resilience may be inadvertently constrained. Professional identity is more effectively cultivated through frameworks that promote recognition, reflection and psychological safety. In this context, cultures of blame are not only unproductive but antithetical to the development of mature, reflective, practitioners capable of navigating the realities of paramedic work. Such cultures may contribute to movement away from person-centred care as paramedics attempt to preserve agency and manage professional vulnerability.

Conclusion

Paramedics operate at the intersection of clinical urgency and complex decision-making, where practical knowledge is continuously negotiated in dynamic, often unpredictable environments. Integrating knowledge into the NUTS framework acknowledges the cognitive, emotional and ontological dimensions of paramedic practice, foregrounding the profession's reliance on adaptive expertise, situated judgment and reflective capacity.

Understanding paramedicine as a (K)NUTS profession provides a theoretically informed lens through which to examine its distinctive characteristics. This reconceptualisation not only enhances analytical clarity but also has implications for professional leadership, education, regulatory frameworks and workforce wellbeing – each of which must evolve in tandem with the expanding scope and complexity of paramedic roles.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge Professor Will Broughton for their critical review of the manuscript.

ORCID iDs

Georgette Eaton

Joe Copson

Aman Hussain

Author contribution(s)

Georgette Eaton: Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Methodology; Project administration; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

Joe Copson: Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

Aman Hussain: Conceptualization; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interest

The authors declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Georgette Eaton is a Deputy Editor of Paramedicine.

Declaration of generative AI

No AI or AI-assisted technologies were utilised to prepare this work.

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