Decades of research have pointed to a negative association between religiosity and cannabis use. However, the complexity of the dimensions involved in cannabis consumption highlights the need to assess whether religious variables would still be considered protective factors if studies included the level of risk associated with cannabis use. This study examined the association between the strength of religious and atheist beliefs and cannabis use (vs nonuse), as well as the level of risk (low-risk use vs moderate/high-risk use) among participants who use cannabis.
Methods:
Data were collected from 5007 adults using an online questionnaire, of whom 1803 reported cannabis use. Cannabis use and its risk level were measured using the Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Screening Test. Strength of religious and atheist belief was measured using the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS-10BR), and the Dimensions of Secularity Scale.
Results:
Logistic regression analyses showed that having medium religiosity (aOR = 1.79; 95% CI = 1.43-2.25), low religiosity (aOR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.04-2.28), medium/high atheism (aOR = 1.68; 95% CI = 1.27-2.23), or low atheism (aOR = 1.69; 95% CI = 1.18-2.44) was positively associated with cannabis use compared with having high religiosity. However, for moderate/high-risk cannabis use compared with low-risk use, the belief strength analyses were not significant. Regarding intrapersonal religious pluralism, there was no significant difference between non-plural and compatible plural, but being incompatible plural was positively associated with moderate/high-risk cannabis use (aOR = 1.71; 95% CI = 1.23-2.38).
Conclusions:
Cannabis use is negatively associated with high religiosity, while moderate/high-risk cannabis use was not associated with the strength of religious or atheist beliefs. The factors associated with cannabis use differed from those associated with moderate/high-risk cannabis use.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Drug Report 2025 (Set of 3 Booklets). 1st ed. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development; 2025.
2.
ChiuVHallWChanGHidesLLeungJ.A systematic review of trends in US attitudes toward cannabis legalization. Subst Use Misuse. 2022;57(7):1052-1061. doi:10.1080/10826084.2022.2063893
3.
ParfreyPS.The effect of religious factors on intoxicant use. Scand J Soc Med. 1976;4(1-3):1-3. doi:10.1177/140349487600400324
4.
ParfreyPS.Factors associated with undergraduate marijuana use in cork. Br J Addict Alcohol Other Drugs. 1977;72(1):59-65. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1977.tb03965.x
5.
NguyenNNNewhillCE.The role of religiosity as a protective factor against marijuana use among African American, White, Asian, and Hispanic adolescents. J Substnce Use. 2016;21(5):547-552. doi:10.3109/14659891.2015.1093558
6.
RiveraCJLaugerTRCretacciMA.Religiosity, marijuana use, and binge drinking: a test of the moral community hypothesis. Sociol Relig. 2018;79(3):3. doi:10.1093/socrel/srx071
7.
EscobarOSVaughanEL.Public religiosity, religious importance, and substance use among Latino emerging adults. Subst Use Misuse. 2014;49(10):10. doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.901384
8.
SartorCEHipwellAEChungT.Public and private religious involvement and initiation of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use in Black and White adolescent girls. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2020;55(4):4. doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01830-y
9.
SetoCH.Religious identity and delinquency: comparing muslim, christian and non-religious adolescents in the United Kingdom. Br J Criminol. 2022;62(4):857-876. doi:10.1093/bjc/azab100
10.
GomesFCde AndradeAGIzbickiRAlmeidaAMde OliveiraLG.Religion as a protective factor against drug use among Brazilian university students: a national survey. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2013;35(1):1. doi:10.1016/j.rbp.2012.05.010
11.
ZanettiACGCumsilleFMannR. The association between the use of alcohol, marijuana and cocaine and the sociodemographic characteristics of university students of Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Texto Contexto Enferm. 2019;28(spe):spe. doi:10.1590/1980-265x-tce-cicad-1-10
12.
GmelGMohler-KuoMDermotaP, et alReligion is good, belief is better: religion, religiosity, and substance use among young swiss men. Subst Use Misuse. 2013;48(12):12. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.799017
13.
PuleHMMashegoaneSMakhubelaMS.Intrinsic religiosity and health risk behaviours among Black university students in Limpopo, South Africa. J Relig Health. 2019;58(3):3. doi:10.1007/s10943-017-0555-1
14.
AssafGNoureddineSKouyoumdjianSEl KhouryJ.Medical students’ knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to substance use in Lebanon: a cross-sectional study. East Mediterr Health J. 2017;23(11):11. doi:10.26719/2017.23.11.734
15.
Salas-WrightCPVaughnMGHodgeDRPerronBE.Religiosity profiles of American youth in relation to substance use, violence, and delinquency. J Youth Adolesc. 2012;41(12):12. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9761-z
16.
GrigsbyTJLopezAAlbersLRogersCJForsterM.A scoping review of risk and protective factors for negative cannabis use consequences. Subst Abuse. 2023;17:11782218231166622. doi:10.1177/11782218231166622
17.
LivneOWengrowerTFeingoldDShmulewitzDHasinDSLev-RanS.Religiosity and substance use in U.S. adults: findings from a large-scale national survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;225:108796. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108796
18.
MellorJMFreebornBA.Religious participation and risky health behaviors among adolescents. Health Econ. 2011;20(10):10. doi:10.1002/hec.1666
19.
VogelsangEMLariscyJT.Let’s drink to being socially active: family characteristics, social participation, and alcohol abuse across mid- and later-life. J Health Soc Behav. 2020;61(4):4. doi:10.1177/0022146520962456
20.
GalenL.Atheism, wellbeing, and the wager: why not believing in god (with others) is good for you. Sci Relig Cult. 2015;2(3):3. doi:10.17582/journal.src/2015/2.3.54.69
21.
PöhlsKSchlösserTFetchenhauerD.Non-religious identities and life satisfaction: questioning the universality of a linear link between religiosity and well-being. J Happiness Stud. 2020;21(7):7. doi:10.1007/s10902-019-00175-x
22.
SpeedDFowlerK.What’s god got to do with it? How religiosity predicts atheists’ health. J Relig Health. 2016;55(1):1. doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0083-9
23.
ChagasCMartinsLBBezerraAG, et alA systematic review on alcohol consumption among non-religious and religious adults. Subst Use Misuse. Published online December 13, 2022:1-19. doi:10.1080/10826084.2022.2155477
24.
ChagasCMartinsLBCristine Santos De PaulaTZangariWGaldurózJCF. Investigating the hypothesis of the strength of religious and atheistic belief for alcohol and tobacco consumption in heterosexual and LGBTQIA+ people. Int J Psychol Relig. Published online December 13, 2024:1-13. doi:10.1080/10508619.2024.2439716
25.
MeyersJLSalvatoreJEAlievF, et alPsychosocial moderation of polygenic risk for cannabis involvement: the role of trauma exposure and frequency of religious service attendance. Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):269. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0598-z
26.
MichalakLTrockiKBondJ.Religion and alcohol in the U.S. National Alcohol Survey: how important is religion for abstention and drinking?Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;87(2-3):2-3. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.07.013
27.
ChagasCMartinsLBMachadoFRZangariWGaldurózJCF. Religious and secular spirituality: methodological implications of definitions for health research. EXPLORE. Published online April 2022:S1550830722000672. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2022.04.004
28.
RileyJBestSCharltonBG.Religious believers and strong atheists may both be less depressed than existentially-uncertain people. QJM. 2005;98(11):11. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci132
29.
HaywardRDKrauseNIronsonGHillPCEmmonsR.Health and well-being among the non-religious: atheists, agnostics, and no preference compared with religious group members. J Relig Health. 2016;55(3):3. doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0179-2
30.
PöhlsK.A complex simplicity: the relationship of religiosity and nonreligiosity to life satisfaction. J Sci Study Relig. 2021;60(3):3. doi:10.1111/jssr.12723
31.
AlgrantiJMosqueiraM.Sociogénesis de los dispositivos evangélicos de “rehabilitación” de usuarios de drogas en Argentina. Salud Colect. 2018;14(2):305. doi:10.18294/sc.2018.1521
32.
GrimBJGrimME.Belief, behavior, and belonging: how faith is indispensable in preventing and recovering from substance abuse. J Relig Health. 2019;58(5):1713-1750. doi:10.1007/s10943-019-00876-w
33.
KubJSolari-TwadellPA.Religiosity/spirituality and substance use in adolescence as related to positive development: a literature review. J Addict Nurs. 2013;24(4):247-262. doi:10.1097/JAN.0000000000000006
34.
RodriguezLMNeighborsCFosterDW.Priming effects of self-reported drinking and religiosity. Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(1):1. doi:10.1037/a0031828
35.
HenriqueIFSDe MicheliDde LacerdaRBde LacerdaLAde S FormigoniMLO.Validação da versão brasileira do teste de triagem do envolvimento com álcool, cigarro e outras substâncias (ASSIST). Rev Assoc Med Bras. 2004;50(2):2. doi:10.1590/S0104-42302004000200039
36.
BullivantSS. The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. 1st ed. Oxford University Press; 2013.
37.
EsperandioMRGAugustHViacavaJJCHuberSFernandesML. Brazilian validation of centrality of religiosity scale (CRS-10BR and CRS-5BR). Religions. 2019;10(9):9. doi:10.3390/rel10090508
38.
ChagasCWachholz StrelhowMRZangariWFernandes GaldurózJC. Adaptation and validity evidence of the Dimensions of Secularity (DoS) Scale for the Brazilian population. Ment Health, ReligCult. Published online March 29, 2022:1-14. doi:10.1080/13674676.2021.2013788
CelikI.Does religiosity matter? The role of subjective and organizational religiosity on substance use among adolescents. Child Youth Care Forum. 2024;53(4):909-930. doi:10.1007/s10566-023-09778-1
41.
HaiAH.Gender differences in the relationships among young adults’ religiosity, risk perception, and marijuana use: a moderated mediation model. Subst Use Misuse. 2018;53(8):1377-1386. doi:10.1080/10826084.2017.1409242
42.
RussellAMYuBThompsonCGSussmanSYBarryAE.Assessing the relationship between youth religiosity and their alcohol use: a meta-analysis from 2008 to 2018. Addict Behav. 2020;106:106361. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106361
43.
BakerJOStroopeSWalkerMH.Secularity, religiosity, and health: physical and mental health differences between atheists, agnostics, and nonaffiliated theists compared to religiously affiliated individuals. Soc Sci Res. 2018;75:44-57. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.07.003
44.
CarràGBartoliFCanestroACapogrossoCABebbingtonPECrocamoC.Influence of intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity on youth cannabis use: a structural equation modelling analysis on national survey on drug use and health (NSDUH) 2015–2019. J Psychiatr Res. 2023;166:178-185. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.09.016
45.
MakHW.Dimensions of religiosity: The effects of attendance at religious services and religious faith on discontinuity in substance use. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2019;80(3):3. doi:10.15288/jsad.2019.80.358
46.
FaiginCAPargamentKIAbu-RaiyaH.Spiritual struggles as a possible risk factor for addictive behaviors: an initial empirical investigation. Int J Psychol Relig. 2014;24(3):3. doi:10.1080/10508619.2013.837661
47.
FitchettGMurphyPEKimJGibbonsJLCameronJRDavisJA.Religious struggle: prevalence, correlates and mental health risks in diabetic, congestive heart failure, and oncology patients. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2004;34(2):2. doi:10.2190/UCJ9-DP4M-9C0X-835M
48.
KrauseNPargamentKIHillPCIronsonG.Spiritual struggles and problem drinking: are younger adults at greater risk than older adults?Subst Use Misuse. 2018;53(5):5. doi:10.1080/10826084.2017.1387567
49.
BastosFIPMde VasconcellosMTLBoniRBDdos ReisNBde S CoutinhoCF. III Levantamento Nacional Sobre o Uso de Drogas Pela População Brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: FIOCRUZ/ICICT, 2017. 520 p.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
