This article discusses three characteristics that are often associated with successful music educators. The three characteristics discussed include nonverbal communication, teacher self-efficacy, and servant leadership. Although there is no magical combination of characteristics that will produce an effective music teacher, these three attributes have been shown to positively affect the effectiveness of the teacher and may provide current and future music educators some ideas and information that may be applied to their own teaching.
Adams, H. ( 1973). The education of Henry Adams ( E. Samuels & J. Samuels, Eds.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2.
Albert, S., & Dabbs, J.M. ( 1970). Physical distance and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 265-270.
3.
Allinder, R.M. ( 1994). The relationship between efficacy and the instructional practices of special education teachers and consultants. Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 86-95.
4.
Anderson, R., Greene, M., & Loewen, P. ( 1988). Relationships among teachers’ and students’ thinking skills, sense of efficacy, and student achievement. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 34, 148-165.
5.
Armstrong, S., & Armstrong, S. ( 1996). The conductor as a transformational leader. Music Educators Journal, 82(6), 22-25.
6.
Ashton, P.T., & Webb, R.B. ( 1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longman.
7.
Balzer, A.L. ( 1969). Nonverbal and verbal behaviors of biology teachers. American Biology Teacher, 31, 226-229.
8.
Bandura, A. ( 1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
9.
Bandura, A. ( 1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
10.
Bandura, A. ( 1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
11.
Bandura, A., Adams, N.E., Hardy, A.B., & Howells, G.N. ( 1980). Tests of the generality of self-efficacy theory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 4, 39-66.
12.
Bartlett, J. ( 1980). Familiar quotations (15th ed.). Rev. and enl. by Emily Morison Beck.Boston: Little, Brown.
13.
Battersby, S.L. ( 2009). Increasing awareness in the general music classroom. General Music Today, 22(3), 14-18.
14.
Battisti, F.L. ( 1999). Teaching music the leadership component. Music Educators Journal, 85(6), 38-41.
15.
Bennett, J.L. ( 2001). Trainers as leaders of learning. Training and Development, 55(3), 43-45.
16.
Bernstein, L. ( 1963). The joy of music. New York: Simon & Schuster.
17.
Bowman, R.F. ( 2005). Teacher as servant leader. Clearing House , 78, 257-260.
Brody, D. ( 1995). First among equals: A corporate executive’s vision and the re-emerging philosophy of trustees as servant-leaders. In L. C. Spears (Ed.), Reflections on leadership (pp. 129-132). New York: John Wiley.
Byo, J.L. ( 1990). Recognition of intensity contrasts in the gestures of beginning conductors. Journal of Research in Music Education , 38, 157-163.
22.
Coladarci, T. ( 1992). Teachers’ sense of efficacy and commitment to teaching . Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 323-337.
23.
Colwell, R. ( 1992). The leadership issue. Arts Education Policy Review, 94(2), 13-19.
24.
Covey, S.R. ( 1990). Principle-centered leadership. New York: Simon & Schuster.
25.
Cruickshank, D.R., Jenkins, D.B., & Metcalf, K.K. ( 2003). The act of teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill.
26.
Dickey, M.R. ( 1991). A comparison of verbal instruction and nonverbal teacher-student modeling in instrumental ensembles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 132-142.
27.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W.V. ( 1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. Semiotics, 1, 49-98.
28.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W.V. ( 1975). Unmasking the face. A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
29.
Emmer, E.T., & Hickman, J. ( 1991). Teacher efficacy in classroom management and discipline . Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 755-765.
30.
Emory University. (n.d.). Bandura, quotable quotes. Retrieved March 15, 2007, from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura
31.
Frymier, J. ( 1987). Bureaucracy and the neutering of teachers. Phi Delta Kappan, 69(1), 1-14.
32.
Galloway, C.M. ( 1974). Nonverbal teacher behaviors: A critique. American Educational Research Journal, 11, 305-306.
33.
Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. ( 1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569-582.
34.
Goodstein, R.E. ( 1987). An investigation into leadership behaviors and descriptive characteristics of high school band directors in the United States. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, 13-25.
35.
Grant, B.M., & Hennings, D.G. (1977). The teacher moves: An analysis of nonverbal activity. New York: Teachers College Press.
36.
Greenleaf, R.K. ( 1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. New York: Paulist Press.
37.
Greenleaf, R. ( 1998). The power of servant leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
38.
Guskey, T.R. ( 1984). The influence of change in instructional effectiveness upon the affective characteristics of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 245-259.
39.
Guskey, T.R. ( 1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept and attitudes toward implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education , 4, 63-70.
40.
Guskey, T.R., & Passaro, P.D. ( 1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627-643.
41.
Hennings, D.G. ( 1977). Learning to listen and speak. Theory Into Practice, 16, 183-188.
42.
Herman, D.V., & Marlowe, M. ( 2005). Modeling meaning in life: The teacher as servant leader . Reclaiming Children and Youth, 14, 175-178.
43.
Hughes, J.R. ( 1981). How do you behave? Your nonverbal actions are critical to student motivation. Music Educators Journal, 67(5), 52-53.
44.
Izard, B.S., & Izard, C.E. ( 1977). Play is the thing that brings it all together. Theory Into Practice, 16, 215-219.
45.
Jennings, K., & Stahl-Wert, J. (2003). The serving leader. San Francisco: Berrett-Kohler.
46.
Julian, F.D. ( 1989). Nonverbal communications: Its implications to conducting . Journal of Band Research, 24(2), 49-54.
47.
Karr, P.J., & Beatty, M. ( 1979). Effects of verbal-vocal message discrepancy on teacher credibility. Educational Research Quarterly, 4, 76-80.
48.
Keith, K.M. ( 1994). Servant leadership. Honolulu, HI: Social Science Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED409764)
49.
Koch, R. ( 1971). The teacher and nonverbal communication. Theory Into Practice, 10, 231-242.
50.
Koestenbaum, P. ( 2002). Leadership: The inner side of greatness: A philosophy for leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
51.
Love, A.M., & Roderick, J.A. (1971). Teacher nonverbal communication: The development and field testing of an awareness unit. Theory Into Practice, 10, 295-299.
52.
Lyons, S. ( 1977). Teacher nonverbal behavior related to perceived pupil social-personal attributes. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 10, 173-177.
53.
McPherson, G.E., & McCormick, J. ( 2003). Self-efficacy and music performance. Psychology of Music, 34, 322-336.
54.
McPherson, G.E., & McCormick, J. ( 2006). Self-efficacy and music performance. Psychology of Music, 34, 322-336.
55.
Mehrabian, A. ( 1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
56.
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (n.d.). Summary data on teacher effectiveness, teacher quality, and teacher qualifications . Retrieved September 1, 2007, from http://www.ncate.org/documents/speakersGuideNov02.pdf
57.
Nielsen, S.G. ( 2004). Strategies and self-efficacy beliefs in instrumental and vocal individual practice: A study of students in higher education. Psychology of Music, 32, 418-431.
58.
Petrovich, A.S. ( 1989). Stage fright in performing musicians: Dimensions of teacher behavior and sources of self-efficacy. (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 4232.
59.
Pinchot, G. ( 1998). An alternative to hierarchy. Leader to Leader, 10, 41-46.
60.
Podell, D.M., & Soodak, L.C. ( 1993). Teacher efficacy and bias in special education referral . Journal of Educational Research, 86, 247-253.
61.
Price, H.E. ( 1985). A competency-based course in basic conducting techniques: A replication. Journal of Band Research, 21(1), 61-69.
62.
Price, H.E., & Winter, S. ( 1991). Effect of strict and expressive conducting on performances and opinions of eighth-grade band students. Journal of Band Research, 27(1), 30-42.
63.
Rashotte, L.S. ( 2002). What does that smile mean? The meaning of nonverbal behaviors in social interaction. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65(1), 92-102.
64.
Reece, B.L., & Brandt, R. ( 2008). Effective human relations: Personal and organizational applications. Boston: Houghton Mifflin .
65.
Ross, J.A. ( 1992). Teacher efficacy and the effect of coaching on student achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 95, 534-562.
66.
Ross, J.A. ( 1994, June). Beliefs that make a difference: The origins and impacts of teacher efficacy. Paper presented at the meeting of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
67.
Shugart, S. ( 1997, February). Servant leadership: Robert K. Greenleaf ’s legacy and the community college. Paper presented at the conference of the Chair Academy, Reno, NV. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 407024)
68.
Soodak, L.C., & Podell, D.M. ( 1996). Teacher efficacy: Toward the understanding of a multi faceted construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12, 401-411.
69.
Spears, L. ( 1998). Creating caring leadership for the 21st century. The Not-for-Profit CEO Monthly Letter, 5, 2.
70.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher-efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.
71.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. ( 1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248.
72.
U.S. Departmentof Education (n.d.). No Child Left Behind- Public Law 107-110. Retrieved September 1, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/107-110.pdf
73.
VanWeelden, K. ( 2002). Relationships between perceptions of conducting effectiveness and ensemble performance. Journal of Research in Music Education , 50, 165-176.
74.
Wis, R.M. ( 2002). The conductor as servant-leader. Music Educators Journal, 89(2), 17-23.
75.
Woolfolk, A.E., & Brooks, D.M. ( 1983). Nonverbal communication in teaching. Review of Research in Education, 10, 103-149.
76.
Woolfolk, A.E., & Brooks, D.M. ( 1985). The influence of teachers’ nonverbal behaviors on students’ perceptions and performance. Elementary School Journal, 85, 513-528.
77.
Woolfolk, A.E., Rosoff, B., & Hoy, W.K. ( 1990). Teachers’ sense of efficacy and their beliefs about managing students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6, 137-148.
78.
Yarbrough, C. ( 1975). Effect of magnitude of conductor behavior on students in selected mixed choruses. Journal of Research in Music Education , 23, 134-146.