Characteristics of Music Teachers Who Effectively Promote Social Capital

Abstract

It is the aim of this investigation through literature review to identify teacher characteristics that may best promote social capital in students, thereby improving their ability to succeed in society. This review defines success as the procurement of a career-aimed occupation or a prestigious occupation. Consequently, it intends to (a) provide a definition of social capital, (b) outline links between increased social capital and student success, and (c) identify four characteristics of music teachers that could promote social capital. These four characteristics include positive rapport, knowledge of content area, successful communication, and regular reflection. Each is examined within music teaching contexts and illustrated through application of the characteristics in an ensemble setting.

Keywords

effective teaching music teacher characteristics music teacher education music teaching and social capital social capital social capital in music

Music education research has acknowledged and continues to acknowledge the importance of effective teaching habits. Many studies on the best practices and skills of effective teachers are available and are aimed at ways of improving student performance in the classroom. Topics included have been the positive effects of sequential patterns and whether teachers use them (Arnold, 1995; Price, 1992; Yarbrough, Hendel, & Price, 1994; Yarbrough & Price, 1989); high teacher intensity, or levels of enthusiasm, as it relates to effectiveness (Cassidy, 1990; C. K. Madsen, Standley, & Cassidy, 1989; Sims, 1986; Yarbrough, 1975); and characteristics of successful teachers as identified by preservice and in-service teachers in music and general education (Abeles, 1975; Fredrickson & Hackworth, 2005; Kelly, 2008; K. Madsen, 2003; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher, & James, 2002; Teachout, 1997; Witcher, Jiao, Onwuegbuzie, Collins, & James, 2008) and as identified by university teachers in music (Rohwer & Henry, 2004). Amid the depth of research in this area, it seems prudent to attempt to identify a broader goal of the characteristics identified as effective. The intent is to consider lifelong learning goals for students so that music teachers can contribute to students’ personal success beyond the classroom. It is the aim of this investigation through literature review to determine which teacher characteristics may best promote social capital in students. If success is the procurement of a career-aimed occupation or a prestigious occupation (Haller & Portes, 1973), and social capital is a means to such procurement (Woolcock, 1998), then targeting teaching characteristics that may enable social capital might prove an effective way to contribute to student success beyond the classroom. Four teacher characteristics are defined and examined in the discussion. Also, one example of a music educator who promotes social capital is included, along with implications for music teacher education.

Defining Social Capital

Social capital has been defined in different contexts and to varying degrees. The very topic of defining it is debated within political theory and social theory circles (Farr, 2004; Langston, 2011; Woolcock, 1998). From discussing its existence as a term to its influence as a concept, social capital has received much attention since its popularity growth in the 1980s, making the effort of isolating a definition all the more complicated (Farr, 2004). Langston (2011) identified a form of social capital specific to music, that of fellowship, along with three forms of social capital beyond music including bonding, bridging, and linking. Each of these, as indicated by their labels, refers to varying functions of social capital. Bonding is a form of social capital that holds things or people together; bridging is a form of social capital responsible for seeking relationships between groups; while linking is a form of social capital that works vertically between organizations and institutions (Langston, 2011). Social capital has also been defined simply as social networks. Coleman and Hoffer (1987) defined social capital in educational contexts as the “relations between persons” (p. 50) and discussed the research available on the topic of social capital as it applies in multigenerational relationships. Farr (2004), in an article that addressed the conceptual history of social capital, provided a concise definition: “the concept of social capital boils down to networks, norms, and trust” (p. 8). A final definition to consider is one situated within the field of economic sociology, as used by Woolcock (1998): “Social capital [is] a broad term encompassing the norms and networks facilitating collective action for mutual benefit (p. 155).

Books can be written on social capital as a term or a concept along with its respective definitions. Within the plethora of social capital definitions, it may be prudent here to consider the above discussion on definitions as holistically as possible so that the term and concept can be of some benefit to music educators. Farr (2004) and Woolcock (1998) addressed networks and norms, with Farr including trust. Coleman and Hoffer (1987) discussed relationships between people, and Langston (2011) identified the forms of social capital, which included bonding, bridging, and linking as well as fellowship in music contexts. In essence, social capital is the substance of relationships between individuals, individuals and groups, and between groups. For an individual, social capital is the understanding of norms and a trust in the ability of those norms to ensure acceptance within a group or community. For a group, social capital is the understanding of a community or political climate so as to bring acceptance and benefits to the members of the group. What is social capital in music education? In the music classroom, social capital is the substance of relationships between students and of relationships between students and groups they may encounter beyond the school environment. Music teachers may enable and nurture social capital by establishing the norms with which students must be familiar, by enabling trust and networks that promote students’ continued participation in an ensemble or music class, and by recognizing the mutual benefits of music participation for both relationships among individual students and for relationships between students and future music groups they may encounter outside of school.

Connecting Social Capital to Success

Social capital can assist people in becoming a part of a community, group, or institution. Because at the very heart of social capital is one’s collected skill in social norms and relationships, the more one possesses, the more readily one is accepted into various social environments. This concept is articulated in an article that investigated the differences in job attainment between Black and White people in which the author stated, “Access to and use of these resources [social capital] can affect career trajectories where, for example, individuals with extensive social ties generally receive a greater quantity of job information than those with fewer social ties” (Parks-Yancy, 2006, p. 515). Parks-Yancy highlighted the necessity of social capital to procurement of a job, thereby suggesting the impact of social capital on a person’s success.

Social capital is also a means of gaining information that may affect job attainment. This concept is articulated in a publication on contact relationships and their effect on getting a job. Granovetter (1995) asserted that information (in the job market) “moves entirely by diffusion through social processes unrelated to market behavior” (p. 51). The statement implies that information is not necessarily gained by searching alone. Rather, the accumulation of it is based on social activity. Hence, the amount of social capital a person possesses can directly affect the amount of information one possesses as well.

Knowledge gain and job attainment seem to share a close relationship with social capital. Because social capital is the substance of established norms, trust, and reciprocity within a social group or community, it may be readily enabled, developed, and expanded within the context of music education. Music education offers environments ripe for social capital, including ensembles, solo activities, auditions, community music collaborations, and exposure to various cultures through the art of music. Each of these settings offers inherent opportunity for gaining knowledge of others, establishing trust, learning norms, and fellowshipping with others, the very components identified by writers of social capital meaning (Coleman & Hoffer, 1987; Farr, 2004; Langston, 2011; Woolcock, 1998). Therefore, this discussion will outline four music teacher characteristics that may best coincide with these components: knowledge of content, positive rapport, communication, and reflection. Ideally, if social capital is promoted and developed within music contexts, where it is already likely to occur, then students have a greater chance of accessing and learning the norms, trust, and values of social groups that may help them in their paths beyond schooling.

Four Characteristics

The literature of successful music teaching outlines at least four teacher characteristics that seem to address the most important elements of social capital: (a) positive rapport, (b) knowledge of content area, (c) successful communication, and (d) regular reflection. Each of these characteristics is of particular interest to enabling students’ social capital due to their relationship to networks, trust, established norms, reciprocity, and fellowship that have been identified as components of social capital (Farr, 2004; Langston, 2011; Woolcock, 1998). When examined through the lens of educational sociology, these characteristics can provide further insight into teaching music for lifelong learning or success beyond schooling. As the sociology perspective is considered, it is important to understand the interaction of these teacher characteristics and the ways in which the collaboration of the elements can enable social capital of students.

Positive Rapport

The first characteristic, positive rapport, is observed in actions between teachers and students. Rapport, within this discussion, is best defined as the evidence of trust between teacher and student. A teacher exhibiting positive rapport with students exhibits elements of trust manifested in students who are comfortable confiding in the teacher or seeking advice from the teacher. Clemmons (2006), in a descriptive study of applied lessons, offered connections between social capital and the nature of applied lessons. Through observation and interview techniques, Clemmons found that trust is a mandatory element in the development of a healthy relationship between students and their applied instructors. Clemmons asserted, “Strong, healthy relationships grow out of the respect a student feels for a teacher’s knowledge of the instrument, and the teacher’s confidence in his or her ability to teach the instrument” (p. 206). Clemmons continued the discussion by citing Brookfield, the author of The Skillful Teacher, and concluding, “Brookfield’s descriptions make it quite easy to see the detrimental results that develop from a distrustful relationship” (p. 206).

Similar findings support Clemmons’s (2006) results (Abeles, 1975; Catt, Miller, & Schallenkamp, 2007; Davidson, Moore, Sloboda, & Howe, 1998; Gruber, Reppel, & Voss, 2010; Hendel, 1995; Kelly, 2008; Lincoln, 2008; Meyers, 2009; Miksza, Roeder, & Biggs, 2010; Stewart, 2002), and they also directly align with those contained in the Coleman and Hoffer (1987) chapter. Clemmons (2006) concluded from the research that positive rapport, manifested in trust between teachers and students, is vital to effective lesson teaching. Trust naturally exists in the form of positive rapport in effective music lessons, and thus, it teaches students about what trust looks like, as well as the nature of a person who is trustworthy. This parallel suggests that positive rapport is an effective characteristic of a music educator who enables and develops social capital of students because it aids in developing trust, a defining element of social capital (Farr, 2004; Langston, 2011). As students develop understanding of who is trustworthy, they are better equipped to rely on those who may help them in future endeavors and to avoid those who may be detrimental to their success.

Knowledge of Content Area

The second characteristic of a teacher who promotes social capital is knowledge of content area. Knowledge is used here to mean the skillful ability of a teacher to define, explain, and apply the skills and contexts of a music topic or task. It is included as a social capital—enabling teacher characteristic because it aligns with the need for norms. Norms of a social group or activity are not easily established without knowledge of the practices and skills needed to function in the group. A music teacher who confidently shares the norms of music practice is exhibiting social capital and sharing that capital with students. In essence, students will gain social capital that pertains to music ensemble traditions, solo etiquette, or community music culture through the knowledge the music teacher possesses. Increased social capital of this kind will allow students to function effectively in differing social settings, due to the knowledge a music teacher provides on the practices of various types of music settings.

Knowledge of content area increases the positive rapport, or trust, between teacher and student, thus offering a twofold impact on students’ social capital. Clemmons (2006) suggested that trust could begin if students know they will learn from the instructor. Expertise and subject area knowledge have been observed as important characteristics by other investigators (Darling-Hammond, Holtzman, Gatlin, & Heilig, 2005; Helterbran, 2008; Hill, Rowan, & Ball, 2005; Kukla-Acevedo, 2009; K. Madsen, 2003; Miksza et al., 2010; Rohwer & Henry, 2004; Siebenaler, 1997; Swackhamer, Koellner, Basile, & Kimbrough, 2009; Turner-Bisset, 1999). In two of these studies (Miksza et al., 2010; Rohwer & Henry, 2004), the investigators listed knowledge and rapport (or similar characteristics that could fall into these categories) in their findings. It is a noteworthy observation that where one was observed, also was the other. The social capital of students can be increased when teachers exhibit strong knowledge of their content areas, thereby sharing with students the elements of social capital in various settings as well as increasing the trust between teacher and student.

Communication

A third characteristic of a music educator who promotes social capital is communication. Communication is defined here as the verbal and nonverbal forms of transferring information from teacher to student. It is included in the discussion for its inherent relationship to the networking element of social capital as identified by Coleman and Hoffer (1987), Langston (2011), and Woolcock (1998). Communication is the transfer vehicle for social capital from teacher to student, and it is the core of networking between people. Langston (2011), in a descriptive study of social capital within community choirs, noted, “The development of networks and connections within the community is manifested through the members’ participation in community groups and organizations outside the community choir” (p. 174). The implication for music education is that students must participate in outside groups, those beyond the school, if networks and connections within the community are to develop. Though other activities in schools may target community involvement such as fund-raisers or community service, no area of study is as readily equipped for it as music. Community collaborative concerts are common among public schools and community music groups but could be more emphasized within music education (Mantie & Tucker, 2008). With increased collaboration, students’ social capital may be increased due to their increased networking with people outside of school, all of which is most effective with a music teacher who is also a competent communicator.

Further supporting the interdependence between effective characteristics is the appearance of communication in lists such as Polk’s (2006), which included personality (classified as rapport for purposes of this article), communication, and teacher ability or modeling (termed knowledge, in this article). Consequently, whereas communication alone has been observed as an effective teaching characteristic (Betts, 2009; Iyamu & Iseguan, 2009; Notzer & Abramovitz, 2010; Rogers, McIntyre, & Jazzar, 2010), knowledge and communication are often observed together in the literature along with rapport or similar characteristics (Rohwer & Henry, 2004; Single, 1991; Taebel, 1990; Teachout, 1997; Yarbrough & Madsen, 1998). The interdependency of these characteristics is an important part of helping students increase their social capital, as the very nature of social capital includes the ability to understand how these elements work together within contexts.

Regular Reflection

The fourth and final characteristic in the literature related to music teacher effectiveness of promoting social capital is that of regular teacher reflection. In this discussion, teacher reflection is defined as the critical examination of the planned activities of the day to determine their reception and overall effectiveness. It should reveal accomplishments, failures, and areas that need improvement so that the teacher may alter his or her activities or approaches accordingly. Regular teacher reflection is a necessary component if a teacher is to enable social capital because it encourages teachers to assess whether their activities are in fact enabling social capital. Is trust developing? Are students learning norms of their groups and other groups? Are students networking with others outside of their schooling environments? Is there evidence of increased understanding of various cultures?

It is difficult to argue with the value of teacher reflection for ensuring that elements of social capital are thriving in the music classroom. Reflective talk helps new teachers evaluate their progress, as Stegman (2007) observed in a descriptive study of cooperating teachers and student teachers, “Reflective dialogue with the cooperating teacher appears to increase the likelihood of critical reflection” (p. 78). Similarly, Butke (2006) found in a descriptive study of five established choral educators, “Through reflection, a teacher can find new ways to understand and face the challenges both inside and outside the classroom” (p. 57). This insinuates that the process of reflection allows educators, both new and seasoned, to determine whether acquisition of effective teaching traits and skills has occurred.

Example of a Music Teacher Who Promotes Social Capital

Though each of the aforementioned characteristics can contribute independently to effective teaching, the interdependence of the characteristics is of particular importance when placed within the framework of enabling students’ social capital. Social capital, as a term or concept, exists as a means to label the social assets a person possesses, including networks, knowledge of norms, and trust in social groups and communities. None of these components are necessarily helpful if exhibited in isolation. Rather, they must exist as a cohesive, cumulative set of knowledge. In like manner, the teacher characteristics that may best enable social capital must also coexist. This idea is best explained and illustrated through examination of music environments in which it is already in effect. One example within the music ensemble setting is provided.

Characteristics of music teachers that may increase social capital can be observed in one director of a community ensemble. Coleman and Hoffer (1987) suggested that trust and a community of various ages create the healthiest environments for social capital to thrive. Langston (2011) put forth a similar idea of encouraging activity outside of the group, in a study on social capital development within community choirs. Higgins (2007) observed the environment of a community band of all ages and found,

Although not always easy, the band appears to advocate a sense of belonging to those who participate. It is this welcoming, this sense of community, that has fertilized a network of friendships that have their seeds embedded within the band’s identity. (p. 290)

Higgins (2007) targeted the idea of social capital through implementation of the phrases, “network of friendships,” “sense of community,” and “sense of belonging.” Here, an example of the occurrence of social capital within a music ensemble is implied. Members of Higgins’s group possess social capital as observed by their exhibition of community-like camaraderie, friendships, and an identity that is based on these components. Furthermore, the founder of the group under examination, Higgins, exhibited the four social capital—enabling characteristics as mentioned above: (a) Higgins was knowledgeable, which was visible in the group’s understanding of social music settings; (b) Higgins’s ability to act as founder of a community ensemble was indicative of rapport and suggests strong social capital among members; (c) Higgins could communicate effectively, which was present in Higgins’s networking, and spurred initial membership in the group; and (d) Higgins must have used reflection to have established an effective community ensemble. As a result, Higgins served as an example of the culmination of the four teaching characteristics that are effective in supporting, developing, and establishing social capital. Furthermore, Higgins enabled the social capital of the group’s members by creating a sense of belonging, a network of friendships, and trust inherent in both. A music teacher of a band, choir, or general music class may also find reward in polishing the four characteristics so that music students can increase their social capital.

With increased social capital, music students may have increased access to success beyond the classroom. Jones (2010), in an article titled “Developing Social Capital: A Role for Music Education and Community Music in Fostering Civic Engagement and Intercultural Understanding,” provided a succinct discussion of the role of music education in enabling social capital toward an active end. Jones summarized, “This article posits that musicking can uniquely foster the development of social capital, which leads to civic engagement and intercultural understanding” (p. 291). Both increased civic engagement and understanding of culture are capable of contributing to success, as each offers gains in social capital. Because increased social capital is a component in attaining a successful job (Granovetter, 1995; Parks-Yancy, 2006), it seems that ways of increasing social capital among students are worthy of consideration among teachers. Furthermore, music teachers may exist in an environment readily suited to increasing students’ social capital due to its community-like nature and fine arts approach to understanding cultures.

Implications for Music Teacher Education

The literature review of social capital enabling teacher characteristics offers several implications for music teacher education. Perhaps preservice music teachers need exposure to the concept of social capital, which could be provided in music education introductory courses. Methods courses could potentially be constructed around the goal of increasing students’ social capital, which may manifest as a stronger emphasis on cultural understanding through music or a course offering that highlights community music. The general goal of educating music teachers may find itself broadening to incorporate more elements of life outside of schooling music, such as teaching popular instruments, musics, and cultures. If greater social capital can lead to greater success and music settings are hotbeds for social capital gains, then music education may also find itself training teachers who are interested in helping students identify trust and norms within social settings as well as fellowshipping among each other to foster the characteristics required to get along with people.

In a climate of constant cultural change in society and a need for a shift in music education to become more relevant to its students, the idea of social capital is refreshing. It offers a way to conceptualize the goal of teaching a more relevant music (Elpus & Abril, 2011; Williams, 2011), and it also suggests a construct for developing teacher-training curriculum that addresses current needs such as greater networking, understanding of cultures, and music participation that extends beyond school. These ideas offer interesting ideas for further research. Study of students’ perception of their social networks, their plans for attaining a job, or their identification of support groups could offer insight into the ways in which they see music as able to increase or decrease their efforts in these lifelong goals. Questions about student participation in community ensembles or their perception of what these groups entail may also provide needed information about how social capital can affect perception and participation in music. An in-depth and contextually bound concept, social capital offers many benefits to those who have it, those who know how to get it, and those who teach it. It could help music education provide a more beneficial education to students that not only leads them to lifelong music making but also leads them to greater understanding of their social surroundings in hopes of enabling greater success in life. Perhaps the four teacher characteristics described in music education literature can be further extended toward the effort of increasing social capital among music students for the result of increasing their success in and beyond school.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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