Abstract
This study compared selected musical, educational, and social characteristics of high schools ranked highest in Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report. Questions addressed were (a) How are the top-ranked schools similar or different in educational, musical, and social characteristics? (b) What music courses are offered at each high school? (c) What types of performances do the music classes present each year? (d) What (if any) are the qualifications for students to be enrolled in music classes at each school? (e) How many students are enrolled in each school and in the corresponding music classes? (f) How do the music programs reflect each school in general? Results of questionnaires indicated music programs were a viable curricular component of each school, including the International Baccalaureate and science, technology, engineering, and math campuses. Most schools and their music programs were educationally and culturally diverse. Music curricula were varied and considered important to the total school environment.
American society has constantly debated the role and purpose of education. Discussions have frequently related to educational quality involving curricular offerings, teacher skills, and school formats (Spring, 2006). Debates have been widespread as a variety of groups including politicians, school administrators, parents, and businesses have expressed concerns about school quality (Kelly, 2009; Marzano, 2007). Consequently, Americans have historically considered virtually every aspect of society for inclusion in educational curricula for institutions to be considered quality schools (Spring, 2006; Thayer & Levit, 1966).
The scope of educational debate often highlights numerous variables that influence school quality. In “A Place Called School”, Goodlad (1984) asked if quality schools could really exist. He based his question on the ever-changing role of schools to meet societal and academic expectations. Goodlad stated that many variables such as academic and nonacademic influences, student characteristics, school choice, teacher attitudes, administrators, politicians, community involvement, religious influences, financial support, and parental involvement influence the qualities of a school. Adding to Goodlad’s concerns, Marzano (2003), citing minimal research on school quality, explained schools are often unable to control for many influencing characteristics such as students’ socioeconomics, racial composition, and home environment.
Nationally, legislation such as No Child Left Behind (U.S. Department of Education, 2013a) and Race to the Top (U.S. Department of Education, 2013b) has increased deliberations by calling for the comparison of schools’ quality and effectiveness. Legislation has frequently resulted in grading and ranking schools within districts, states, and nationally. For example, in 2012, in an effort to help parents evaluate their local schools, the Florida Department of Education released a ranking of all public high schools based on students’ scores on the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test and Advanced Placement exams, and school graduation rates (Florida Department of Education, 2012).
In 2012, Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report presented independent rankings of the U.S. high schools, using distinctive criteria for the rating process. U.S. News & World Report (2012) utilized a three-step process for ranking schools on the state level: (a) comparisons of math and reading standardized test scores, (b) socioeconomic levels, and (c) ethnic diversity. Schools were then ranked nationally using Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate test data to determine a “college readiness index” for all graduating students. The process resulted in a ranking of 4,877 schools meeting the established criteria.
Newsweek (Streib & Yarett, 2012) surveyed principals, superintendents, and other administrators from 2,300 schools to produce the final list of top 1,000 U.S. high schools. The survey elicited information on (a) 4-year on-time graduation rates, (b) the percentage of graduates accepted into college, (c) the number of students taking advanced placement courses, International Baccalaureate, and Advanced International Certificate of Education college exams, the number of courses offered by each school within these advanced programs, and the final test scores of students completing these programs, and (d) the students in each school average scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test and American College Testing exams.
Research has indicated that a school’s overall quality is influenced by a curricular emphasis in the arts (Austin, 1997; National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003; Woodford, 2005). Studies have shown that Americans deem the arts as vital and necessary components of quality school curricula (Bianchi, 2005; Gallup Organization, 2003). Additionally, organizations such as NAfME (2012) have promoted the contributions of music education toward school quality to educators, policymakers, businesses, and community leaders. However, Abril and Gault (2008) stated that despite support, an expansion of arts curricula within schools has not occurred. This conclusion has been supported by NAfME (2012), which reported that while music programs are found throughout schools in the United States, the extent and quality of music experiences vary, thus raising the question of music’s contribution to overall school quality.
A better understanding of music’s role and potential impact on the quality rating of a school curricula may lead to greater advocacy for the inclusion of music education to benefit students’ overall education. By examining educational, social, and musical characteristics of the highest ranked schools, music educators and policy makers can better determine the contribution of music in the academic success of students. Such investigations may also result in new methods for implementing effective music programs within all schools. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare select musical, educational, and social characteristics of high schools ranked highest in Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report. Specifically, the following questions were addressed. (a) How are the top-ranked schools similar or different in educational, musical, and social characteristics? (b) What music courses are offered at each high school? (c) What types of performances do the music classes present each year? (d) What (if any) are the qualifications for students to be enrolled in music classes at each school? (e) How many students are enrolled in each school and in the corresponding music classes? (f) How do the music programs reflect each school in general?
Method
Using the lists published by Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report, we selected the first 50 high schools on both lists beginning with the top rated schools. Any school not found on both lists was not considered, resulting in 34 potential schools. Next, we sought to research each school’s Web site. If no Web site was provided, or if the Web site listed was not working, then that school was deleted from further consideration. This action resulted in 26 schools being eliminated. On viewing the schools’ Web sites, we sought to determine if music was a curricular offering and if so, were e-mail addresses of the music faculty provided. If no faculty e-mail addresses were provided, or the school Web site did not indicate that music was offered, those schools were also deleted. These actions resulted in 11 schools being eliminated for not presenting their music curricula online and another eight schools eliminated for not providing e-mail addresses for their music faculty. After these eliminations, a final pool of 24 schools was secured to be contacted (see Table 1). Because several schools offered multiple types of music classes (band, chorus, general music, and orchestra) and had multiple directors, all directors (N = 54) in the 24 schools were contacted.
List of Responding Schools.
Participation involved completing a brief questionnaire consisting of five open-ended questions (see the appendix). Using the open-ended format allowed for no constraints to be placed on responses or force arbitrary classifications. Furthermore, we wished to avoid a questionnaire style that would suggest respondents should “fit” their answers into an a priori classification. Thus, we sought to allow freedom for respondents to add, omit, or redefine responses making the experiences more personal. Each teacher was contacted via their school e-mail address and asked to participate in the study. A copy of the questionnaire was included as an attachment to the e-mail request to participate. The teachers were also informed that their personal names would not be identified but that their school names would be used since they had already been identified in the Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report publications.
The teachers were instructed to respond via e-mail to the questionnaire. After 1 month, teachers who had not yet responded were sent a reminder e-mail, requesting that they complete the attached questionnaire. After another two-week-period, the returned responses were collected for analysis. During the e-mail data collection period, we also collected demographic data and enrollment procedures using the Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report sites and each school’s Web site. The information gathered included the total school enrollment, percentage of minority students, type or format of school (i.e., public, magnet, charter), and the application process to attend the school (i.e., application or lottery).
To analyze the collected music teacher responses, we independently read each reaction, then met to create categories based on similar responses and a taxonomic structure was devised that allowed us to collapse categories. The taxonomy was revised several times until we were satisfied with the clarity of the category groupings. After allowing 2 months to pass, we met again to discuss the original reactions, the final taxonomic structures, and the final groupings of responses. The data were then given to two outside observers who reviewed a random selection of 20% of all answers and placed each response into the established taxonomic structure. Reliability was found to be .98 by counting the number of identical response classifications and comparing the two lists using the formula agreements divided by the sum of agreements plus disagreements (Madsen & Madsen, 1998). The final categories created for data analysis included (a) music courses offered, (b) types of performance, (c) qualifications to participate in the music class, (d) total student enrollments in the music classes, (e) social demographics of the music classes, and (f) special characteristics of the music program as it pertains to the school culture.
Results
After contacting 54 music teachers from 24 schools, a total of 15 faculty responses (28%) representing 11 schools (46%) was collected (see Table 1). Three faculty responses indicated their information about the entire music program (i.e., the band director responded for band and chorus). All responses were sorted according to the established categories and analyzed by school, not by each individual music program. Additional information from the Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report sites, along with individual school Web sites was also collected.
How Are the Top Ranked Schools Similar or Different Regarding Educational, Musical, and Social Characteristics?
The data indicated that seven schools were traditional public schools, three listed as magnet schools, and one as a charter school (see Table 2). Three traditional schools contained an International Baccalaureate (IB) component, one was a magnet school with an IB component, and one traditional public school offered a science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) program. Nine schools required an application to attend, including an IQ score. Finally, two schools, based on their socioeconomic status, were classified as Title 1.
School Characteristics.
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and math; IB = International Baccalaureate.
Respondents from seven schools indicated that the enrollment in their music programs reflected the ethnic diversity and socioeconomic status of the general school population (see Table 3). One participant stated that his/her music program was “fairly consistent with representation of the overall school” and “it is a good cross-section of the student body not only from a socioeconomic and racial sample, but from a social standing.” Other responses included “most of the students enrolled in music were female” and “as the top school in the state, we have students who come from wealthier backgrounds.” Regarding minority rates, each school’s Web site used the term minority rate to describe the non-White racial composition of their student population. The application of this term by the schools is consistent with U.S. Department of Education (2007) and the U.S. Census Bureau (2013). Data indicated that six schools had minority rates below 50% and five had minority rates above 50%. The highest minority rate was 66% while the lowest was 14%.
Cultural Diversity Characteristics.
What Music Courses Are Offered at Each High School? What Types of Performances Do the Music Classes Present Each Year?
Eight respondents indicated their schools had at least four different music classes and seven offered a minimum of four different performing ensembles (see Table 4). Ensembles in two schools were identified by generic class names (i.e., choir, strings), four schools had a marching band, and three schools offered a beginning level ensemble. Other ensembles included concert band, beginning strings, indoor color guard, indoor drum line, advanced band, and advanced choir ensemble. Nonperformance classes included AP music theory, IB music, and general music.
Reported Music Course Offerings and Annual Performances.
Note. VBODA = Virginia Band & Orchestra Directors Association; SATB = soprano, alto, tenor, bass; IB = International Baccalaureate.
Responses indicated eight programs presented at least two school concerts and at least one competitive performance annually (see Table 4). One school had a jazz band that performed 15 to 20 concerts annually, 2 band programs had 5 concerts per year, and 1 school performed for “many” city events. Some respondents also mentioned collaborative concerts with community groups, as well as with music programs within the school. One director stated, “we perform a lot—we live in a community where the band is called upon to perform.” All respondents of programs reportedly having a marching band indicated that they participated in “competition” performances.
What (if Any) Are the Qualifications for Students to be Enrolled in Music Classes at Each School?
Seven schools required an audition at some point to participate in music (see Table 5). However, responses from three schools indicated that auditions are required only after students have completed the beginning level of instruction. Respondents indicated that four schools did not require an audition, but two schools did require some type of previous musical experience to participate. For example, one respondent wrote that at his/her school “entrance requirements are minimal and students are selected by lottery from the applicant pool—applicants need only have a minimum of 2 years of musical experience.”
Reported Qualifications to Participate in Music.
How Many Students are Enrolled in Each School and in the Corresponding Music Classes?
According to Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report, seven schools had a total school enrollment greater than 700 students (see Table 6). The remaining school enrollments were less than 700 students. The smallest enrollment was 163 students, while the largest enrollment was 2,170. The school with the smallest enrollment had multiple campuses. The school with the largest enrollment served Grades 2 through 12, while most others in the study served Grades 9 through 12.
Reported Student Enrollment in Music and Total School Enrollment.
All students required to take musicianship classes.
When extracting information regarding music program enrollment, it is imperative to recall that the authors only requested an “approximate number of students.” Additionally, only one music teacher per school responded and did not always provide information for the entire school music program. Music enrollments were reported to be between 24 and 437 students. The teacher response from the school indicating the largest enrollment in their music program noted that all students attending that particular school are required to take musicianship classes. Only one response indicated that his/her school’s music enrollment was less than 100 students. Six schools were reported to have music class enrollments between 100 and 200 students. For 10 schools, the music enrollment represented more than 10% of the total student population.
How Do the Music Programs Reflect Each School in General?
This particular question elicited a variety of responses. Due to the generality of the open-ended questions, the authors categorized this question as “additional comments and characteristics” (see Table 7). Four categories emerged, the first being enrollment. Teachers stated that specific percentages of their schools were enrolled in music and that “music is a common experience for all students in grades 9 through 12.” Others mentioned the “need for gifted students to have an aesthetic escape.” The second area included specific information about the school’s music staff, with two teachers reporting a shortage of staff while one indicated a very large music staff.
Additional Comments From Music Teachers.
Positive remarks and concerns were collected from all responses. One expressed concern was that “students struggle to fit band in their schedule” and another reported “no support from the administration.” Positive comments included one music teacher who stated their school is “visible with music, band, orchestra, choral, and general.”
Discussion
Data from this study were used to compare select musical, educational, and social characteristics of high schools ranked highest by Newsweek and U. S. News & World Report. The findings are consistent with previous research that indicated that a wide variety of variables contribute to school quality (Goodlad, 1984; Marzano, 2003). Overall, students in the music programs in this study reflected the educational and social diversity of the general school population within the participating schools. The diversity of the student populations could explain the diversity of most of the schools’ music curricula. Most participating schools offered a variety of musical opportunities ranging from performing ensembles to nonperformance classes. The curricular diversity could explain why enrollment in the majority of music programs exceeded 10% of the total student population. This finding illustrates a degree of success as a music enrollment of 10% of the general school population has been cited as a norm in school music programs (Minear, 1999). Though challenges were reported (e.g., scheduling issues), music classes in the participating schools appear to be thriving in both curricular offerings and enrollment. Consequently, it can be concluded that while the participating schools achieve high academic standards, most also excel in their musical curricula. This conclusion supports the perception that a strong arts program contributes to overall school quality (Austin, 1997; Woodford, 2005).
Diversity was also represented in the type of schools that participated and in their role and functions. Educationally, a variety of school types (e.g., traditional, magnet) were represented. Within the responding schools, it is possible that, to be successful, music programs function differently in each due to school type. It is interesting that no school had an arts or music magnet approach. Yet, programs seem to thrive within the school environments. For example, one teacher commented “Music adds a lot to the curriculum and the school environment” and another stated “Our school is visible with music, band, orchestra, choral, and general.”
Other common characteristics were some degree of application process and generally small student enrollments. Application processes suggest selectivity toward specific student characteristics. However, this possibility did not appear to affect cultural diversity as most teachers reported their students represented a range of races and socioeconomic levels. A greater possibility is that application processes may contribute to smaller enrollments in the schools. Moreover, an application process could result in higher achieving students as evidenced by one school’s use of students’ IQ scores in the admission screening.
An important finding was the extent that music was part of every school. The overall large number of music classes offered was not necessarily expected given the type and format of schools in the study. Abril and Gault (2006, 2008) had stated that music programs are often reduced or eliminated due to low funding or a lack of curricular focus. Yet, programs in this study seem to succeed in what may be considered nontraditional school formats (e.g., IB and STEM schools) while reflecting more traditional school music experiences through large performing ensembles (e.g., concert band, orchestra, choir). Furthermore, most programs offered a variety of additional opportunities including small ensembles, jazz, classroom courses, and general music classes. Musically, some type of audition was required for students to participate in upper level ensembles at most schools. This is interesting due to the common response that only basic middle school fundamentals are required for students to enroll in music. Still, most schools’ music curricula had courses that provided music experiences for any student without the need for an audition. Although responses suggested these courses tended to be general music and nonperformance type experiences, access to music experiences for any student appeared to exist. For example, beginning level ensemble instruction was offered in several schools. Having access to opportunities may explain the generally large music enrollments at most of the schools. Having large music enrollments explains music’s greater presence in the overall school environments.
Both school and community performances were common. It was interesting that all of the schools that reported having a marching band participated in competitive performances. Although competitive performances are common within high school band programs, it is possible that the more competitive nature of the music program reflects a possible competitive culture within the school. The application processes used to gain admission to most of the schools may support this perception. This possible correlation is an area for future research, especially given the high ranking of the participating schools.
Perhaps the most interesting responses from teachers pertained to the question of how the characteristics of the music programs reflected the schools in general. Characteristics (e.g., race and socioeconomic status) of students in music classes reflected those of students from the general school populations. Overall, the teacher comments were split between positive and negative in nature. Concerns were expressed about scheduling and staffing problems, yet praise was stated for curricular opportunities, overall music enrollment, and exposure of the music program within the overall school and community. It seems, as Marzano (2007) suggested, the commitment of individual teachers overcame challenges encountered in many of the schools.
The findings of this study may be helpful to school districts, administrators, teachers, and others interested in advocating for school music and improving school quality. Many findings, such as the role music plays within the school environment, may be useful in assisting individuals who may attempt to emulate the characteristics and culture of high performing schools. The study’s findings suggest that diverse music programs may contribute to overall school quality. Such observation may be important due to the current educational emphasis on STEM and common core curricula, which may be perceived as academically focused at the exclusion of other curricular areas (Spring, 2006). However, based on this study’s findings, music exists in schools with high academic expectations and thus should be considered as part of any school curriculum. In addition, preservice teachers may find the results useful in understanding differences among schools and how music classes may reflect the overall general school culture. Such awareness may enable teachers to better prepare strategies to meet the scope of student interests and abilities. Moreover, administrators may find the results useful as they consider additional programs to improve school quality and attract students. More research is warranted that investigates the role and relationship between school culture and music programs.
Undoubtedly, the Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report rankings can be debatable and should be considered a limitation of the study. Questions exist concerning the different criteria used by the authors of each publication that included the high use of self-reported data by schools in the evaluative process and a lack of perceived controls for the reliability of the data. Such data could certainly be open to bias, which would influence a school ranking. However, the rankings do provide a starting point for discussion concerning the issue of what factors contribute to school quality. Consequently, the nature and scope of this study were intended to be informative, to illustrate the relationship of music to the general culture within schools that some consider the best in our country.
Other limitations include the teacher responses, especially those made by only one member of a music program. It is probable that a single individual is unaware of all the aspects of every specific program. Consequently, the band director may have limited knowledge of all the activities and culture of the choral program. Thus, future research should attempt to contact more members of the music programs of top-ranked performing schools. Certainly future research could devise a method for collecting information from top schools in ways that does not require teacher responses. Such procedures may gain additional information that, when combined with this study’s results, could result in more complete and reliable information for all schools.
An additional limitation is the study’s sampling procedures, which significantly reduced the number of schools initially contacted and examined in the study. In attempting to analyze the absolute top schools, the authors initially focused on a small sample of the 50 top schools in each publication’s rankings. Additional procedures resulted in an unintentional reduction of the sample size. The methodology used required information to be obtained via each school’s Web site. Due to this procedure, a number of schools were eliminated due to the lack of a Web site for the school. The lack of a school Web site may be in itself information concerning the top schools listed in the publications. Why might a top school fail to have a Web site? One possible answer is a lack of adequate funding to design and administer a Web site. Subsequently, funding, a variable not directly evident in the study’s findings, could influence school quality. Furthermore, information on school Web sites often varies. Certainly, the limited scope of the responding schools would limit the possible variables that could influence school quality. Consequently, more research is warranted that expands the scope and nature of certain influences on school quality, including variables associated with music programs.
Another sampling limitation is the small sample of responding schools. Multiple efforts were made to contact every school. All schools that responded to the e-mail request for participation, and all of the information provided by the directors, were included in the study.
In essence, however, the participating schools served as a sample of convenience that is not necessarily representative of the larger initial sample. Thus, the study’s results should be viewed as exploratory in nature. Though the small number of participating schools makes generalizing virtually impossible, the participating schools do demonstrate commonalities, which could be considered by other schools when assessing the role and contribution of music in their overall school environment.
Footnotes
Appendix
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.