Reflective Journals

Background

Dewey (1933) defined reflective inquiry as the “active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and further conclusions to which it tends” (p. 9). This definition situated reflection beyond the thought of a passing idea to an attentive act of focusing on an idea and considering the implications of any actions with that idea. Purposeful reflection reduces random decision-making and allows an individual to make choices by carefully examining information gathered from various experiences, resulting in purposeful thinking.

Black, Sileo, and Prater (2000) defined reflection as follows

[a] cycle of thought and action in which educators explore their values, attitudes, thoughts, and experiences, as well as underlying issues of practice; identify and analyze critical incidents in their personal and professional lives; develop new realizations and appreciations as means to construct their knowledge and worlds; and encourage behaviors that are congruent with their construction of reality. (p. 71)

Schön (1983) described this cycle of thought reflection-in-action, where an individual pauses to consider an action that was performed and what future actions may take place.

Reflective practice in teacher education programs can be an essential component in the development of preservice teachers (Morrison, 2009). Shulman (1987) defined reflection in education as, “reviewing, reconstructing, reenacting, and critically analyzing one’s own and the class’s performance, and grounding explanations in evidence” (p. 15). Rodgers (2002) found that preservice teachers increased their awareness about teaching and learning on becoming a reflective practitioner. It is important for preservice teachers to acquire an active, keen set of observation skills in order to understand what they are seeing, and process that information to make decisions based on their experiences (Rodgers, 2002). This review will examine the use of reflective journals in teacher education programs.

Reflective Journals in General Education

Instructors in teacher education programs who have used reflective inquiry tools have found that these practices may have led to better teaching (Heichel & Miller, 1993; Risko, Roskos, & Vukelich, 2002). Journals have been particularly effective in encouraging reflective thought. Krol (1996) stated that journal writing “is an approach that fosters reflection and is an effective source of dialogue between student and teacher” (p. 1).

Reflective writing can create cognitive awareness in considering previous actions and builds confidence by placing value on student thought. It promotes autonomy by placing student responsibility for learning into focus, and provides an avenue to share anxiety concerning classroom experiences (Calderhead, 1993; Chi, 2010; McGuire, Lay & Peters, 2009). These key factors of journal writing can help a student to become a reflective practitioner.

The use of journals has many possible benefits for the preservice teacher. Journal writing is open-ended, allowing students to create questions and respond freely (Crème, 2005). Journals can serve as a self-assessment tool to evaluate educational philosophy and instructional approach in the classroom (Hume, 2009; I. Lee, 2008). They also can provide an opportunity for students to create a dialogue with themselves (Hedlund, Furst, & Foley, 1989; LaBoskey, 1994; Sparks-Langer & Colton, 1993). Journal writing incorporates various formats of reflective activities. Sileo et al. (1998) created a list of different types of entries in journal writing which included diary type entries, which served as a way for students to document their experiences, reactions to methodology, examine values, assumptions, and belief systems; notebook entries, which were used to promote reflection concerning course content; dialogue entries, which allowed students to communicate thoughts to their instructor; integrate entries, which focused on the ability to generate knowledge to support or contradict ideas; and evaluative entries, which allowed students to self-assess and analyze thoughts and actions.

I. Lee (2008) identified four types of journals: dialogue journals, which were based on an interaction of responses between teacher and student journals; response journals, which involved students’ personal reactions to their educational activities; teaching journals, which recorded the students’ thoughts and reactions during their teaching; and collaborative/interactive journals, which documented the interactions between groups of students. This study detailed the opportunity to create journals linked to specific learning or activities for preservice teachers.

Reflective journals may enable university instructors to maintain an active dialogue with their students (Rodgers, 2002) and provide them with insight into how well students reflect on their experiences (Bean & Stevens, 2002; Maloney & Campbell-Evans, 2002). Furthermore, instructors may be better able to promote awareness of relationships between theory and practice, along with systematically reflecting on growth and actions within the classroom setting (Taggart & Wilson, 2005).

Reflective journals have been used as a research technique to acquire evidence of learning theories such as constructivism. The following studies examined this topic from various perspectives. Although journal writing was found to aid preservice teachers to reflect more purposefully, some researchers have indicated that preservice teachers may need to be taught how to reflect more appropriately and suggested that a gap between theory and practice may exist.

Knapp (2012) used reflective journal writing to examine the educational experiences of her students and, in turn, learned more about theories and ideas presented in her college courses. Knapp maintained that journal writing assisted students to reflect on what she termed apprenticeships of experience and enabled instructors to be more supportive of student teaching experiences. Journal entries allowed students to share their thoughts and ideas and provided the opportunity to reexamine both their past learning experiences and assumptions. Knapp suggested that teacher educators could guide students to reflect more purposefully and utilize journals more effectively rather than relying on the students to perform this task alone.

Moore (2003) examined preservice teachers’ reflective practice in context of the constructivist learning theory that they had been taught to guide their teaching and instructional choices during their internship experiences. Moore analyzed preservice teachers’ reflective journals, field notes, and surveys given to student teachers and their mentor teachers during the teaching internship. The results of this study indicated that while preservice teachers understood the value of learning educational theory, their focus shifted from theory to issues of time management, classroom management, and lesson planning. Results also revealed missed opportunities for mentor teachers and university supervisors to create reflective responses to classroom experiences to link theory to practice. Moore stated opportunities to “examine the theoretical constructs behind the pedagogical decisions made by the preservice teacher were often overlooked in lieu of procedural concerns” (p. 40).

Davis (2003) examined reflective journals of 25 preservice teachers to understand how they integrated theoretical knowledge acquired during university coursework to their teaching practice. Davis found that reflective journals provided university instructors insight into the thought process of preservice teachers. Specifically, Davis wanted to see if the content of the journals included the integration of past knowledge or if preservice teachers were merely modeling teachers they observed. The study revealed that preservice teachers may need further training in scaffolding before they could effectively reflect on their experiences.

Beeth and Adadan (2006) examined 42 preservice teachers’ reflective journals explicating the successes and challenges they experienced during their internship in light of previous knowledge they acquired in their coursework at the university. Results of this study indicated that preservice teachers shifted from being self-focused to being concerned about the students in a short period of time. The findings also revealed a gap between theory and practice. The researchers suggested that teacher educators may need to “understand the problems that preservice teachers experience as embedded in practice and find ways to address them as they occur, rather than questioning how to lessen the tension or bridge the gap that exists between theory and practice” (p. 118). Student teachers were encouraged to develop a better sense of awareness as to “how their concerns about successful teaching are likely to change” (p. 118).

Researchers have also investigated teacher identity using reflective writing and its subsequent impact on teacher education programs (Bullough, 1991; Whipp, Wesson, & Wiley, 1997). The following studies found that reflective journals may have aided preservice teachers in the development of their teacher identities and provided instructors insights into the preservice teachers’ teaching and learning. Bullough (1991) examined the reflective writing of 15 student teachers in order to examine how preservice teachers develop their teacher identities. The researcher asked the preservice teachers to use metaphors in their reflective writing and to explore connections and differences between their metaphors and teaching experiences. The participants were required to identify events from their past that affected their decisions to enter the field of teaching. All of the student teachers responded that reflection was meaningful to the development of their teacher identities. This activity aided them to conceive their roles as teachers, not become complacent, and identify what grade levels and school environments would best fit their teacher identities.

Whipp et al. (1997) found that preservice teachers refined their analytical problem-solving and self-assessment skills through the use of written reflections. Written reflections assisted them in developing their personal teacher identities through examination of broader perspectives about educating students and learning, rather than examining isolated events during their teaching experiences. The researchers stated that reflective writing offered valuable insights into preservice teachers’ teaching and learning, as well as those individuals who taught them.

Reflective Journals in Music Education

Reflective journals have been used by music teacher educators to aid in the development of the preservice music teacher. A review of the following studies provides short sketches of different uses for journals in music education pertaining to communication, methodology, and preservice teachers’ perceptions on the use of journals. Rozmajzl (1992) asked 77 university instructors who taught music method courses to complete a survey during a 3-day colloquium on music teacher programs. Sixty-eight questionnaires were returned representing 88% of the sample. These 68 participants represented universities in 30 states in the nation. They were asked to reply to questions in five areas that incorporated field experience requirements: (a) introduction to music education courses, (b) elementary music methods courses that involved student observations, (c) observations not connected to a course, (d) teaching experiences in elementary music teaching, and (e) other types of field experiences not covered in the previous categories. In the section of the questionnaire dealing with methods courses that included classroom observations, 70% of the participants reported that students were required to use reflective journals to capture their experiences and observations. Rozmajzl suggested that journals offered an open-ended method for preservice music teachers to record thoughts about actions and methodology, thus providing direction and creating a self-dialogue to improve practice. Fallin and Goetze (1999) added that journal writing could provide motivation for students to improve their teaching and furnish pertinent information to instructors concerning future topic selection in courses.

In a similar study, Fredrickson and Pembrook (1999) used journals to record student thoughts and reactions about teaching experiences in elementary and secondary schools. Researchers found student perceptions were affected by which level of school they taught, the amount of time teaching at the school, and the quality of music making from school students. Journals provided an opportunity for students to self-assess their teaching experiences and helped their instructors gain insight into their thoughts.

Tarnowski (1997) examined 67 journals of preservice music teachers to determine their value and found that certain aspects of instruction transferred well from methodology to practice. Results showed that lesson planning instruction transferred well, but the actual implementation was troublesome for students. Journals also indicated that students felt anxious about understanding learning levels of students, being able to explain effectively and give clear directions, having adequate classroom management skills, and selecting/designing appropriate assessment techniques. The instructor would not have acquired this knowledge using only traditional lecture-based instruction.

Reflective journals are used by researchers to determine perceptions and beliefs of preservice music teachers (Conkling, 2003; Valerio & Freeman, 2009). These journals provide the researcher with invaluable data on participants’ thoughts and belief systems. Journals are also used as part of data triangulation in qualitative research. For example, Conkling (2003) used reflective journals along with unstructured interviews, field notes, and observations to capture the “voice” of preservice music teachers working in a professional development site in a small school district.

Valerio and Freeman (2009) examined the perceptions of preservice music teachers about their experiences during an undergraduate music methods course. They used reflective writing along with interviews to conduct this study. The researchers found that participants reported success in acquiring more experience at reflection-in-action, and gained a greater appreciation for the use of reflective inquiry in teacher education. Since journal writing can be a key element in teacher education programs, it is important to examine how reflective journals are assessed in the classroom.

Issues Related to Reflective Journals

One area of concern in the use of journals has been that of assessment. The following studies examined the development and implementation of rubrics on the written reflections of preservice teachers. Sparks-Langer, Simmons, Pasch, Colton, and Starko (1990) developed the Framework for Reflective Pedagogical Thinking to evaluate students’ abilities to reflect on thoughts and actions. The aim of the framework was to determine the students’ ability to use educational concepts to explain classroom teaching activities. Based on Van Manen’s (1977) earlier work, the researchers created a rubric of seven levels to express the quality of student writing, arranged sequentially from lowest to highest.

A pilot study conducted with preservice teachers and experienced teachers revealed a large variance among respondents. Using the rubric developed by Sparks-Langer et al. (1990), Chen and Seng (1992) evaluated the reflective writing quality in the journals of their undergraduate and graduate students. The graduate students’ journals were assessed to be higher in quality, ranging from 3 to 6, while undergraduate scores ranged from 2 to 5. This suggested that the framework was able to measure different levels of reflective journal writing, thus giving valid feedback to students.

Other researchers have evaluated journal writing using different methods. Using qualitative methods, H. J. Lee (2005) assessed content and depth in journal writings of three preservice teachers. The researcher measured three levels of depth: recall, rationalization, and reflection, and the three participants demonstrated depth at each of the levels. Results revealed that reflection was influenced by various contexts, including the conditions in which the reflection took place, the teacher’s preference on the mode of communication, and the characteristics of the supervising teacher.

The practical utilization of journals depends on how it is implemented by the instructor. Researchers have found some issues with how well university students reflect on their experiences and their ability to use reflective journals appropriately. Grant (2001) reported that university students reflect differently from one another and vary in their understanding of the relationship between emotion and learning and their willingness to accept ambiguity. Maloney and Campbell-Evans (2002) found differences in how students described events and analyzed situations, as well as their ability to reframe their beliefs and ideas.

Other researchers have assessed the use of journals from the preservice teachers’ perspective and reported that some preservice teachers responded negatively to using journals and indicated possible reasons for those negative responses. For example, Barry (1996) found journal writing to be ranked last by students in a survey of six strategies promoting reflective inquiry. The participants cited that daily journal writing was too time-consuming and they became “lazy” or forgot to complete the assignment each day. Other participants responded negatively, stating that they did not understand why they were required to write reflective journals. The researcher suggested that the participants may not have understood the journal writing assignment or the participants were not motivated to invest time to complete the assignments. Black et al. (2000) acknowledged a lack of understanding concerning the use of journal writing on the part of preservice teachers. Preservice teachers also expressed a concern over the lack of time they had to complete journal assignments, which may contribute to the negative perceptions of reflective journals.

This review found the use of reflective journals to be beneficial to both preservice teachers and teacher education instructors by creating cognitive awareness concerning past experiences and encouraging an open dialogue to occur between preservice teachers and instructors. This review focused on studies conducted from general education and music education literature. Reflective journals have been used by researchers to enhance learning theories such as constructivism (Knapp, 2012), by preservice teachers to examine past experiences for meaning (Davis, 2003; Moore, 2003), and by instructors linking theory to practice (Beeth & Adadan, 2006; Davis, 2003; Moore, 2003; Tarnowski, 1997). Knapp (2012) found that journals may enable instructors to be more supportive of preservice teachers’ experiences, while Beeth and Adadan (2006), Davis (2003), and Moore (2003) indicated that teacher educators may need to create more reflective experiences for preservice teachers, help guide them to reflect more purposefully, and find ways to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Journals have also aided preservice teachers in understanding and developing their teacher identities (Bullough, 1991; Whipp et al., 1997).

Rozmajzl (1992) and Fredrickson and Pembrook (1999) examined the utility of reflective journals in music teacher education programs and found that journals may have provided direction, self-dialogue, and opportunities for self-assessment for preservice music teachers. Journals were also found to be a useful tool for the researcher in capturing the thoughts and beliefs of preservice teachers (Conkling, 2003; Valerio & Freeman, 2009). Scholars have developed different ways to assess reflective writing. Sparks-Langer et al. (1990) sought to determine the ability for preservice teachers to reflect appropriately, Chen and Seng (1992) examined ways to assess the quality of reflective writing, and H. J. Lee (2005) assessed the depth of reflective writing. Other researchers investigated how preservice teachers differ in their ability to reflect meaningfully and found that preservice teachers vary in their understanding of the relationship between emotion and learning, willingness to accept ambiguity, and how they described and analyzed experiences (Grant, 2001; Maloney & Campbell-Evans, 2002). Barry (1996) and Black et al. (2000) examined journals from the perspective of preservice teachers and found that some preservice teachers responded negatively to the use of journals. The researchers suggested that university instructors could aid preservice teachers by thoroughly explaining assignments and provide more time for preservice teachers to complete assignment. The following section outlines the issues derived from this study and the implications of this review on the use of reflective journals in teacher education programs.

Conclusion and Implications

Reflective journals are a useful student-centered activity that provides opportunities for self-education. Journals can provide inspiration and motivation to students who use them purposefully to reflect on past experiences that were successful or meaningful to them, thus increasing their desire to continue teaching. Journal review can also bring preservice teachers back into focus, if needed, by providing reinforcement of the necessary context of the world of teaching. Teacher education programs may continue to benefit from the utilization of reflective journals when properly implemented in the coursework of preservice teachers. Reflective journals may aid preservice teachers by developing necessary reflective skills for them to become successful reflective educators.

The literature review has implications for teacher education programs that implement reflective journals. Studies suggest that preservice teachers may not know how to reflect and that they reflect at different levels. For instance, Black et al. (2000) reported that preservice teachers may need instruction on the use of reflective writing. Grant (2001) and Maloney and Campbell-Evans (2002) found that preservice teachers differed in their ability to analyze situations and to reframe beliefs and ideas. Teacher education instructors could teach preservice teachers how to reflect more purposefully. It is important for preservice teachers to be taught how to record, describe, and reflect appropriately on their experiences. Preservice teachers also may need support and guidance throughout their undergraduate experiences to provide them with the necessary skills to become successful educators. This may aid in changing some of the negative reporting on using reflective journals (Barry, 1996; Black et al., 2000).

University teacher education programs that provide deep learning and teaching experiences may enable preservice teachers to think more freely, and transform preconceived ideas and beliefs about learning and teaching. For example, Moore (2003) found student teachers, their cooperating teachers, and university supervisor did not reinforce reflection during the student teaching phase, but rather focused on specific methods of instruction, thus denying the preservice teacher an important learning experience. From this review of the literature, it is suggested that teacher education instructors work to develop deep learning and teaching experiences for preservice teachers to use their reflective skills to acquire awareness and knowledge of course content in action. This may assist preservice teachers to become stronger reflective teachers for the future.

Teacher educators could use reflective journals more effectively to bridge the gap between theory and practice. If teacher educators incorporate reflective journals into their curriculum, they may become more effective in bridging the gap between theory and practice in that they may have a better understanding of the challenges preservice teachers face. Furthermore, instructors can best help preservice teachers link theory to practice when these experiences occur in the field (Beeth & Adadan, 2006). Although there will be inherent issues between theory and practice, reflective tools such as journals can aid in linking theoretical concepts to actual teaching.

This review of literature points to the need for additional research. Many studies in this review examined the perceptions of preservice teachers concerning the use of reflective journals, yet further inquiry is needed from the perspective of university instructors in teacher education. Many of the authors of the studies in this review were instructors of teacher education courses and wrote on the benefits of reflective journals; however, a study examining the perceptions of instructors on a wider scale is needed and would be welcomed in the field of teacher education.

There is a need for longitudinal studies that may help answer the question: How have the use of journals in preservice education affected actual teaching? Longitudinal studies examining how well preservice teachers incorporate the reflective skills they acquired in preservice training into their teaching can aid in answering various questions: How well did they link theory to practice through reflection? How have the reflective skills gained in preservice education affected their first few years of actual teaching? Have their reflective skills improved with more teaching experience? These studies would be a solid contribution to the field of music education.

Since the need for teaching preservice teachers how to reflect more purposefully has been established, the following question comes to mind: Do teacher education instructors teach reflective skills in music education courses? The Rozmajzl (1992) study examining this question is more than 20 years old—current data are needed to shed light on the use of reflective journals today. Another important question derived from this review was, What methods of teaching reflection have made an impact on the quality of preservice teachers’ reflective writing and their perceptions on using reflective journals?

Despite these questions concerning the gap in the literature, the use of reflective journals continues to be an important tool in teacher education. Journals catalog important observations and thoughts while creating accountability. Journal writing is about reflection, which leads to action, which ultimately leads to more successful teaching. This specific knowledge is a driving force to the implementation of effective changes in instructional methods.