Abstract
Sustaining or increasing participation in school choral programs is a priority among choral music educators. Motivation frameworks are helpful tools for understanding why students start, stop, or sustain involvement in activities. In this article, I explore some of the sociopsychological factors associated with choral music participation through the lens of two motivation frameworks: Self-determination theory (SDT) and Expectancy-value theory (EVT). First, I use SDT to highlight classroom characteristics that encourage intrinsic motivation and sustain long-term engagement in choir. Second, I explore how concepts from EVT are important to consider when designing a choral program and the associated recruiting strategies. Finally, I frame choral music participation as an inherently complex phenomenon—differences between enrollment rates and program characteristics are to be expected and welcomed, given the numerous ways motivational factors and school environments influence involvement. I briefly address each motivation theory followed by multiple classroom applications.
Monitoring enrollment rates in choir classes is a natural part of choral program management. Participation rates often have numerous pedagogical and practical implications. Examples include ensuring sufficient access to music education, supporting the musical functionality of choral ensembles, and even providing choral educators with justifications for full-time employment. Concerns around enrollment also represent one of the regular stressors of choral program management, sometimes causing frustration and anxiety among music educators (Fitzpatrick, 2013; Scheib, 2003; R. D. Shaw, 2014). These concerns deepened as large ensembles were restricted or moved online during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (Hash, 2021; Parkes et al., 2021).
Exploring motivation theories may help choral music educators (a) organize their pedagogical and promotional strategies effectively and (b) resolve some of the stress around what strategies or program structures promote choral involvement. Undoubtedly, there are few simple solutions for increasing participation in music ensembles or reducing the pressure of sustaining enrollment rates. However, motivation research may provide a baseline of clarity around the factors that influence participation in choral programs—empowering choral directors to act with greater intentionality as they manage choral instruction and involvement.
Moreover, understanding the complex interplay of motivational factors among students and within a school system may help explain why music teachers observe variation in choral involvement or program characteristics from school to school. Given this expected variation between programs, choral teachers may feel more empowered to build choral programs that fit the characteristics of their school. Choral directors may also feel less pressure to create the perfect choral program and help the music education profession embrace broader definitions of success (Maunu, 2018).
Purpose and Framework
In this article, I explore the issue of school choral participation based upon insights from two motivation theories. In social psychology, theories are one of the primary tools for understanding and solving problems (Schultz & Estrada-Hollenbeck, 2008). Motivation theorists tend to address two primary questions: (1) What causes behavior? and (2) Why does behavior vary in its intensity? (Reeve, 2015). In even simpler terms, why do people do what they do (Deci & Flaste, 1995)?
In the sections that follow, I utilize Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) to explore why students do or do not sustain involvement in choir programs. I use SDT to address teaching practices that support students’ basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation, encouraging their involvement in choral programs over time (retention). In the EVT section, I consider the motivational factors all students—those enrolled and not enrolled in music classes—consider when choosing to engage in activities (recruitment).
Before exploring SDT and EVT, it is important to note a few provisions for interpreting the research and practices that are espoused in this article. First, the field of motivation includes many theories. Researchers and practitioners may apply theories differently based upon various circumstances or problems (e.g., Achievement Goal theory, Mindset theory, Self-efficacy theory, etc.; Leaper, 2011; Pintrich, 2003; Reeve, 2015). As a result, although SDT and EVT may not encapsulate all the dynamics associated with choral participation, I selected SDT and EVT because they are particularly well-suited for understanding some of the most common challenges related to retention and recruitment in the choral classroom. Second, both SDT and EVT are multifaceted. Therefore, some aspects of each theory are abbreviated or not represented in this brief article.
SDT: Supporting Basic Psychological Needs
One concise framework for conceptualizing the dynamics that sustain involvement in choir is the concept of basic psychological needs (BPN) from SDT. SDT proposes humans need to experience three BPN to thrive: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Students develop intrinsic motivation and exhibit deeper cognitive and emotional engagement when we support their BPN in our classes (Reeve, 2016). A growing body of research has indicated a connection between BPN satisfaction and retention in music classes (Evans et al., 2013; Evans & Liu, 2018; E. Freer & Evans, 2019; Kingsford-Smith & Evans, 2021; Yoo, 2020). Although SDT encompasses many concepts (e.g., quality vs. quantity of motivation, goal orientations, identity development), I focus on actionable strategies that support students’ BPN in the choir classroom. BPN satisfaction will likely enhance intrinsic motivation, deepen engagement, and help sustain involvement in choir (Evans & Liu, 2018; E. Freer & Evans, 2019; Reeve, Jang, et al., 2004; Yoo, 2020).
Competence
Competence is the need to operate effectively, master new challenges, and grow our abilities within an environment (Evans, 2015). Competence is best supported when students regularly improve (mastery experience) and observe others modeling improvement or offering encouragement (Hendricks, 2016). Therefore, consider if your pedagogical practices (e.g., sequencing, assessment, feedback, critical thinking) and curriculum (e.g., repertoire selection) support or frustrate feelings of competence in your students. The following categories represent a few of the ways music teachers can support students’ feelings of competence.
Optimal Challenge
Plan repertoire and employ rehearsal strategies that facilitate optimal challenge (Reeve, 2016). Optimal challenges demand effort from students while still ensuring they succeed more than they fail. For example, some teachers plan music that requires part-singing well beyond students’ capabilities rather than at the threshold of their abilities. The students repeatedly fail to maintain their part against the rest, frustrating their need for competence. Scaffold skill development in numerous domains to promote opportunities for an optimal challenge (e.g., vocal development, sight-singing, part independence, expression, staging; Pol et al., 2010).
Goals and Expectations
Clarify goals and expectations, so students know what they are trying to accomplish and when they have achieved it. Clear goals may be particularly challenging in choral rehearsals because many choral objectives are abstract, such as singing an expressive phrase or producing a beautiful tone. Therefore, clarify learning goals by addressing specific behaviors and underlying concepts. For example, Jordan (2005) encourages singers to produce spacious, high, and forward sounds—taking the nebulous idea of resonant tone and linking it with achievable behaviors. Bowers (2011) encourages teachers to utilize rules for expression to clarify how to sing with artistry (e.g., any note greater than the steady beat value should crescendo, stress the first note of a slur).
Feedback
Feedback is essential for supporting competence and may come from instructors, peers, or even oneself. For instructors, offering direct and specific feedback related to the task at hand will guide students toward mastery (Svec, 2017). When instructors provide feedback in a constructive manner (i.e., praise effort, offer specific strategies for improvement), competence and autonomy are supported (Carpentier & Mage au, 2013). For peer or self-assessment, it is essential to use specific criteria to guide feedback (Mendoza & Yan, 2021).
Novel Experiences
Choral teachers often incorporate special learning experiences throughout the school year, such as unique performance opportunities (e.g., choir share program with a college, district/state festivals, perform in a unique venue) or invited class guests (e.g., voice or conducting clinicians). Special events may represent a novel experience for many students, which have been shown to support learning and stimulate interest (Morrens et al., 2020; Silvia, 2006). These experiences will likely support feelings of competence because they represent several competence-supportive elements—feedback, optimal challenge, positive environment, goal clarification, and novelty (Carpenters & Mageau, 2013; González-Cutre et al., 2016; Reeve, 2016).
Autonomy
Autonomy is the need to feel ownership and self-endorsement of one’s actions (Reeve, Deci, et al., 2004). When students’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors emanate from within themselves their need for autonomy is fulfilled (Evans, 2015). Consequently, supporting autonomy in the classroom means taking steps in our teaching behaviors, curriculum, rehearsal practices, program management, classroom management, and even personal sentiments to support students’ strivings instead of merely controlling their behaviors and outcomes (Reeve, 2016). Autonomy-supportive practices help students feel understood and more closely align students’ interests, goals, and concerns with the objectives of the class. In contrast, the need for autonomy is frustrated when students feel controlled, obligated to act, or feel they do not have opportunities to enact their aspirations (Evans, 2015). The categories below represent a few of the ways teachers might support students’ autonomy.
Repertoire and Choice
Choose a repertoire that is congruent with and values student interests and cultural backgrounds (J. Shaw, 2012). Students bring their musical identity to the classroom, developed over time by their experiences with friends, families, community members, and broader socio-cultural factors (e.g., class, ethnicity, language, gender, age, and popular culture; Eccles, 2009). An autonomy-supportive approach prioritizes student interests and strengths during repertoire selection, rehearsal, and performance (e.g., style, difficulty, and emotionally resonant themes; J. Shaw, 2012). Encourage student choice in several aspects of the choral experience—examples may include repertoire, social gatherings, and daily rehearsal schedule. When facilitating student choices, consider that authentic decisions require understanding the options and rationales (Reeve et al., 2003).
Rehearsal Behaviors and Dispositions
To support autonomy during rehearsals, (a) link learning activities to the choir’s goals, (b) provide meaningful rationales for activities, and (c) utilize encouraging and humanizing instructional behaviors (Reeve, 2016). First, meaningful explanations for learning activities are autonomy-supportive because they serve as links between a seemingly “worthless” activity (from the student perspective) to student performance goals (Deci et al., 1994). For example, instead of telling students to sight-read because it is inherently important, link the sight-reading exercise to a performance piece the students enjoy. Second, acknowledge and accept negative affect—accept students’ frustrations as they proceed through the learning process (Deci et al., 1994; Reeve, 2009). This practice is autonomy-supportive because the teacher shows sensitivity to students’ emotions and concerns, acknowledges student frustrations as legitimate, and restructures some aspects of the rehearsal in response (Reeve & Jang, 2006). Third, humanize and encourage students by recognizing effort, praising progress more than criticizing failure, and enjoying student personalities with good humor and care (Reeve & Jang, 2006).
Promote a Growth Mind-set
A growth mindset is a belief that one’s abilities are malleable and might be improved through effort and practice (Dweck, 2006). To support a growth mindset in choir students, Adams (2021) recommends offering constructive feedback (i.e., praise for effort, strategies for improvement), approaching mistakes as opportunities for growth, and scheduling regular benchmark assessments rather than high stakes assessments. Why is a growth mindset related to feelings of autonomy? First, personal improvement goals are inherently intrinsic (e.g., personal growth, new endeavors, developing relationships), while comparative goals are extrinsic (e.g., trying to be better than someone else, attractiveness, and other’s perceptions; Bauer et al., 2005; Dweck, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Second, a growth mindset encourages individuals to see themselves as the cause of their behavior and development (internal perceived locus of causality; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Ryan & Deci, 2017).
Student Self-Direction
Opportunities for self-direction enhance feelings of autonomy, and there are many opportunities for self-direction in the choral program (Evans, 2015; Nix et al., 1999). First, include student voice and choice in performance decisions such as repertoire, performance design, or venue (Evans, 2015; Haning, 2021). Second, allow students to innovate and manage aspects of the choral program (e.g., mentoring programs, socialization activities, social media, recruiting activities; Mara, 2019). Third, facilitate self-direction in the music classroom through student-centered pedagogical practices. Student-centered learning practices include creating personal learning goals, solving musical problems in partners, thinking critically about their performance in collaboration with their peers, and even offering instruction to their peers (Evans, 2015; Hansen & Imse, 2016). Activities such as these support autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation because students initiate a course of action to meet learning goals within their capabilities (Evans, 2015; Haning, 2021; Johnson, 2015).
Classroom Management
Consider how your classroom management practices support autonomy. Autonomy does not mean a lack of structure. Indeed, structure coupled with autonomy support enhances classroom engagement (Jang et al., 2010). Accordingly, use structure and mutually agreed-upon procedures and rules to guide the classroom. To the degree you can, avoid punishments, threats, shame, and effort/performance contingent rewards to motivate students (verbal rewards and unexpected rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation; Deci et al., 1999, 2001). These actions will inevitably come across as controlling because they force students to comply through coercion, thereby thwarting feelings of autonomy. When students do violate rules or core principles, administer agreed-upon consequences from a position of neutrality.
Relatedness
Relatedness is the need to feel connected to people and involves caring for others and others caring for you (Deci & Ryan, 2014). In keeping with the need for autonomy, this reciprocal care should be voluntary and unconditional—each party cares for the other through success and failure. This sense of belonging and connection seems especially important to choir members (Ebie, 2005; Parker, 2016, 2018; Rolandson, 2015; Yoo, 2020). Here are some ways to support student relatedness in the choral classroom.
Student Esteem
Lead each student relationship with esteem for students’ strengths and potential (Parker, 2016; Sweet, 2008). Demonstrate your regard for students by creating conditions where the group’s strengths will show and performances will be successful. Even beyond the classroom, look for school-wide musical opportunities. For example, allow all students in the school to participate in events like the school musical, talent shows, lunchtime karaoke, or open mics. This overriding ethic of possibility demonstrates a sense of caring and belief in who students are and what they can do (Parker, 2016).
Reciprocal Care
Care between choir members must be reciprocal and voluntary to support feelings of relatedness (Laird, 2021; Parker, 2010; Parker, 2016). Accordingly, students might teach and coach each other in paired groups during class. The leadership team may develop mentorship systems and social outings that make sense for them and their lives. Furthermore, invest in team building and mentorship programs to keep students connected and supported throughout the year.
Independent and Interrelated Needs
It is important to note that BPN needs are both independently essential and mutually supportive (Chen et al., 2015). The development of one need may support the development of another, and all three needs must be satisfied to support optimal well-being (Patrick et al., 2007; Ryan & Deci, 2017). For example, students in choir report a sense of connection to each other in relation to their shared interests, goals, and identities (Parker, 2018). Therefore, the pursuit of excellence in choral performance (competence) through interesting repertoire (autonomy) will also enhance feelings of relatedness and belonging.
Expectancy Value Theory: Self-Efficacy, Value, Costs, and Barriers
In this section, I utilize an expectancy theory of motivation to discuss recruitment in choir. Expectancy theories of motivation concern individuals’ perceptions of different choices or outcomes (Reeve, 2015). Expectancy-value theory (EVT), while addressing many aspects of development and motivation, is centered primarily on one straightforward premise—individuals are more likely to engage in activities they expect to be personally successful (self-efficacy) and activities they value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020).
Self-efficacy is a belief in one’s ability to accomplish a specific task (expectancy) (Zelenak, 2020). Value is delineated by three branches: interest value, attainment value, and utility value (Eccles & Wig field, 2020). Interest value addresses the enjoyment one feels when engaging in an activity. Attainment value refers to the importance of a task as it relates to the essential aspects of oneself (identity). Utility value is related to an individual’s short and long-term goals. EVT also includes a third construct—costs. EVT researchers suggest individuals avoid activities or actions that cost too much in relation to their benefits (additional cost distinctions below; Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Consequently, recruitment strategies designed to bolster singing self-efficacy and value while reducing costs may effectively encourage choral participation. In summary, an individual’s self-efficacy, values, and cost perceptions will collectively influence their decision to engage in an activity.
Strategies Related to Self-Efficacy and Interest Value
Recruiting strategies that bias toward action and involvement may be particularly effective in supporting self-efficacy and interest value among students. For example, some choir directors find success with “Bring a Friend to Choir” days, where students not enrolled in the choir may participate in a rehearsal during or after school. Similar events occur when elementary or middle school choir students visit the upper-level school for a choir exchange day or vice-versa. Even simple recruiting events where choir members bring friends to sing for the director may be influential. The critical part of these events is that students sing, socialize together, and follow-up personally (e.g., send a note thanking students for their participation and organize a follow-up social). These events may have a more substantial impact than advertising alone.
There are several reasons action-based events affect self-efficacy and interest values positively. First, mastery experiences or hard-won successes tend to be robust supports for self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). When students unfamiliar with choir come together and sing with their peers or participate in a small voice test with the choir teacher, they may experience a sense of accomplishment and develop a stronger belief in their ability to grow as a singer. Furthermore, these experiences may be especially supportive of self-efficacy when paired with an emphasis on a growth mindset (growth from hard work rather than talent; Hulleman et al., 2016). Second, when students sing alongside their peers, they observe others’ success and may begin to see the activity as natural and feasible (vicarious experience; Bandura, 1997).
For singing experiences to effectively develop interest value, they should feature elements such as fun (students enjoy the activity), novelty (the rehearsal is varied and includes enjoyable twists and turns), relatedness (the experience occurs within a community of people who care for each other), autonomy (the activity has a meaningful connection to students’ goals and interests), and competence (the activity scaffolds skill development in a way that encourages growth, even in a short time; Hulleman et al., 2016; Turner et al., 2015). In addition, singing experiences are physiological and emotional events (Hendricks, 2016). Like other physical activities, they induce healthy stress, strain, and release. These experiences encourage energy and elation, leading to increases in self-efficacy and interest (Hendricks, 2016). Finally, action-based recruiting strategies provide you and your students an opportunity to persuade students to join the choir.
Strategies Related to Attainment and Utility Value
Beyond self-efficacy and interest value, attainment and utility values represent critical distinctions in how and why students value choral music participation. Attainment value refers to the importance of a task as it relates to the essential aspects of oneself (identity). Researchers have repeatedly demonstrated that some students do not see their identities (e.g., musical, race/ethnicity, and gender) as congruent with choral participation (Escalante, 2019; P. K. Freer, 2010; Hawkinson, 2015). Accordingly, consider which identities are undervalued or absent in your program. Demonstrate openness to students’ culture, interests, concerns, and values by teaching in an autonomy-supportive and culturally responsive manner (Reeve, 2016; J. Shaw, 2012). In many respects, recruiting from an attainment value perspective is less a recruitment strategy and more a mode of being—teaching to remove barriers and provide a home for all students. Notwithstanding that posture of openness to all students, one attainment value recruiting strategy might be to actively recruit students with an existing musical interest because music is already an important part of their identity.
Extramusical benefits of choir participation such as group trips, friendships, and community are important utility value motivators. Utility value is related to an individual’s short- and long-term goals. Group trips, social activities, and the desire to belong are reasonable goals for many adolescents. Understandably, we are often reluctant to stress extramusical motivators because they are not grounded in the intrinsic value of the music itself. Still, the utility value is a natural source of motivation and is likely an essential part of recruiting choir members.
The Role of Costs and Barriers in Choral Participation
EVT researchers highlight an additional and influential construct that can disrupt the natural connection between values, self-efficacy, and engagement—the costs of participation (Barron & Hulleman, 2015). Costs refer to the efforts or sacrifices related to activity participation. Research findings suggest that cost negotiation plays a vital role in decision-making, but researchers and music educators may too often overlook the role of costs in activity involvement (Hawkinson, 2015; Pendergast & Robinson, 2020; Sin et al., 2021). EVT theorists cite four types of costs: effort-related, effort-unrelated, loss of valued alternatives, and psychological costs.
Effort-Related Costs
Effort-related costs represent both the energy and resources an individual must apply to a task. Students will inevitably consider how hard the choir class is and the resources required before joining. In response, adjust the difficulty and time commitment according to your students’ needs and school environment. Other effort-related costs include financial constraints, after-school rehearsals, travel commitments, and skill remediation.
Effort-Unrelated Costs and Loss of Valued Alternatives
Effort-unrelated costs and loss of valued alternatives represent effort required in other activities or activities an individual must forfeit to participate in choir. This cost structure may be particularly prevalent in small schools (fewer students to divide among many activities) and schools where academic achievement is significantly prioritized (Bannerman, 2019). For choir teachers in small schools, consider if the structure of the choral program provides students with the flexibility to participate in several activities. For students concerned about choir interfering with advanced academic classes, nationally representative studies have shown music participation does not negatively influence high school completion rate, college acceptance, or grants/scholarship acquisition (Elpus, 2018, 2022) Music students even select STEM majors in college at similar rates to their nonmusic peers (Elpus, 2018, 2022) As students consider how to spend their time in school, ensure students can pursue choral music alongside other activities.
Psychological Costs
Psychological costs are a broad category of personal, emotional, or social costs (e.g., anxiety, embarrassment, and acting outside a social identity). Some evidence indicates there are psychological costs for not auditioning into upper-level choral groups, leading some students to cease choir involvement (Adams, 2020). This trend is consistent with research on school academic tracking, where students are well-aware of the status and perceptions of their academic track, which inevitably influences their school engagement and how they view their prospects of success in the future (Cowell & Glossenger, 2021; Verhoeven et al., 2019). Therefore, it may be helpful to contemplate the right balance between hierarchy and open participation in choral programs (Adams, 2020). One approach might be to provide leadership opportunities in lower-division ensembles if students are not accepted into upper-division ensembles. Another method might be to reduce choral hierarchy structures or make ensemble promotion contingent on years of experience rather than audition.
Social Norms
Another aspect of psychological costs is the norm violation of peers, parents, or other important people within a social identity group. Social norms are a shared expectation between people concerning what is appropriate (Ajzen, 2012). People with a shared social identity (e.g., gender identity, friendship group, race/ethnicity, and cultural background) may also share some social norms. Individuals weigh the potential psychological costs of participating in activities that conflict with the norms of their social network or prevailing cultural background. For this reason, try to orient choral performance, curriculum, and activities toward the culture and values of students from as many identity groups as possible. This orientation is in keeping with concepts from attainment value (Hulleman et al., 2016), autonomy-supportive teaching (Reeve, 2016), and culturally responsive pedagogy (J. Shaw, 2012). One way to understand and even influence the norms in your school is to become involved in other school activities. One’s centrality in the school’s social network will affect their understanding of social norms and their ability to influence social norms throughout the school (Christakis & Fowler, 2009).
Barriers
Beyond costs, be sure to consider outright barriers to participation in the choral program. Barriers represent a complete lack of access to music classes rather than conflicts of energy, obligations, or interests. Although many barriers occur at a macro-level (e.g., state funding and lack of access in small schools/charter schools/low-SES schools), there are school-level barriers as well (Pendergast, 2020). First, consider if your scheduling practices block students from certain academic tracks, special education classes, or English-Language Learning classes from participating in the choral program (Cowell & Glossenger, 2021; Elpus, 2013; Verhoeven et al., 2019). Structure your courses in a manner that provides the most flexibility in scheduling. Second, just as in the effort-related costs, consider if your choral program is open to students from all ability backgrounds.
Choir Participation Is Complicated—and That’s OK
The sociopsychological concepts enumerated in this article provide a framework for understanding choral music participation and revitalizing our practices to promote choral participation. Still, be mindful that these theories do not represent a panacea for increasing choral involvement. These elements provide helpful but imprecise directions about encouraging students’ participation. Choral music participation is complex, and the details of our teaching, retention, and recruitment practice will require experimentation and development over time.
Moreover, I attempted to highlight the complexity of choral participation. Teacher behaviors, student motivations, identities, communities, school environments, and other factors interact to influence music participation in school music programs. Given the motivation frameworks detailed previously, differences between choral programs are to be expected and welcomed. Your choral program should serve your students’ musical aspirations, energies, and passions while also allowing for the unique strengths, features, and constraints of your school system. Therefore, examine your classes considering the concepts presented in this article. Decide the best practices for serving your students, encouraging their involvement, and supporting their musical growth.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
