Learning From Graduate Training in Related Fields: A Model Online School Psychology Program

Abstract

Since the enactment of Public Law 94-142, school districts have struggled to hire and retain required special education personnel (i.e., special education teachers, school psychologists, and related service providers). Data show that shortages of these qualified personnel are even more magnified in rural school districts. Distance education can provide an opportunity for candidates in rural areas to pursue educational training and certification while remaining in their communities. We summarize evidence-based components for online programs and describe an online program designed to respecialize candidates as school psychologists through comprehensive online training. We recommend a similar online model for training candidates to be special education teachers in rural and remote locations and provide guidance for programs to develop effective online programs.

Keywords

school psychologist shortage special education teacher shortage online training programs distance education rural education

The enactment of Public Law 94-142 on November 19, 1975, created a great need for special education personnel such as special education teachers, school psychologists, speech–language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and other related service providers. Unfortunately, the field of special education has historically been plagued by a shortage of required personnel to fulfill the obligations of its governing laws (Bailey & Zumeta, 2015; Boe, 2006; Boe & Cook, 2006; Castillo, Curtis, & Tan, 2014; Cook & Boe, 2007; Higher Education Consortium for Special Education, 2010; Lahman, D’Amato, Stecker, & McGrain, 2006; McLeskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2004; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). For the past decade, the National Coalition on Personnel Shortages in Special Education and Related Services (NCPSSERS, n.d.) has monitored, tracked, and collected data related to the shortage of special education teachers and related services providers. Updated NCPSSERS statistics indicate that 51% of all school districts and 90% of high poverty school districts (defined as school districts where more than 75% of the students qualify for free or reduced price lunch; National Center for Education Statistics, 2018) report difficulty attracting qualified special education teachers. In 2014–2015, all possible subgroups of special education teaching positions were listed as severe shortage areas in an educator supply and demand survey (Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016). The researchers found that special education positions comprised more than half of all severe shortage areas reported in the survey.

Similar to the national shortage of special education teachers, school psychologists are in short supply around the country (National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], 2017b). In response to this shortage, the NASP (2017a) developed a resource guide as a set of recommendations for expanding and diversifying the school psychology work force. Despite efforts in the field of school psychology to address the personnel shortage (Bocanegra, Grapin, Nellis, & Rossen, 2017; Doss, Krach, & Vickers, 2017; Reeves, 2017), the NCPSSERS (n.d.) predicts there will be a shortage of almost 15,000 school psychologists in the United States by 2020. Additional sources suggest a significant shortage of school psychologists will continue through at least 2025 (Castillo et al., 2014).

Magnified Special Education Personnel Shortages in Rural School Districts

According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2013), students enrolled in rural areas represent approximately 24% (12 million students) of the total student enrollment in the United States. Ratcliffe, Burd, Holder, and Fields (2016) explained that the U.S. Census Bureau defines rural as “what is not urban.” An urban area is defined as either an area of 50,000 or more people or as a cluster of at least 2,500 people and less than 50,000 people. Rural areas encompass “all population, housing, and territory not included in an urban area.” Such areas comprise 19.3% of the U.S. population and vary greatly (ranging 5%–61%) by state (Beebe-Frankenberger & Goforth, 2014).

Rural school districts have historically experienced even greater difficulties recruiting and retaining qualified personnel than more urban school districts (Bailey & Zumeta, 2015; Beebe-Frankenberger & Goforth, 2014). Specifically, rural local education agencies (LEAs) are much more likely to have problems filling English language learner (ELL) and special education teaching positions and often begin the school year with unfilled positions (Bailey & Zumeta, 2015). Lower pay, geographical and social isolation, requirements for teaching in multiple subject areas, and former requirements for highly qualified teachers negatively affect recruitment for qualified teachers and related service providers such as school psychologists (Beebe-Frankenberger & Goforth, 2014; Hammer, Hughes, McClure, Reeves, & Salgado, 2005; Sundeen & Wienke, 2009).

The challenges faced by rural school districts of hiring qualified teachers and related service personnel is compounded by common funding practices. Most educational reform dollars funded by states, foundations, and the federal government are focused on the country’s low-performing schools in big cities as opposed to rural school districts (Hill, 2015). In addition, often overlooked, a large percentage of underrepresented groups also resides in rural areas. Hill (2015) reported that in 18 states, more than one quarter of the rural students are Black or Hispanic, and in 24 states, more than 40% of students in rural and remote areas live in poverty.

Similarities Across the Preparation Standards for School Psychologists and Special Education Teachers

Programs that train school psychologists and special education teachers adhere to their respective national standards, the NASP’s (2010) Standards for Graduate Preparation of School Psychologists and the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC; 2017) Initial Preparation Standards, respectively. Both fields require future practitioners to gain a specific set of knowledge and skills through coursework designed around their respective preparation standards and to apply these skills during supervised practicum/internships/student-teaching experiences.

The standards around which preparation programs are developed are remarkably similar across the fields of special education and school psychology. The NASP standards include 10 practice domains. The CEC standards include seven areas for initial preparation. Table 1 shows that six of the seven CEC standards align with seven of the 10 NASP standards. For example, CEC’s Initial Preparation Standard 1.0 Learning Development and Individual Learning Differences is highly similar to NASP’s Graduate Preparation Standard 2.8 Diversity in Development and Learning. To develop knowledge and skills in this area, school psychology and special education programs encourage candidates to work with students from diverse backgrounds and to establish assessment, consultation, and intervention practices that promote the learning and well-being of all students. Similarly, CEC’s Initial Preparation Standard 7 and NASP’s Standards 2.2 and 2.7 require future special education teachers and school psychologists to learn to work in teams and collaborate with other professionals and families in the delivery of special education services. Students are taught strategies for effective communication and collaboration. They are then required to demonstrate these skills in individualized education program (IEP) team meetings during practicum or internships.

Table 1.

Comparison of CEC and NASP Preparation Standards With Example Candidate Evidences.

CEC Initial Preparation Standards with abbreviated description (CEC, 2017)	NASP Standards for Graduate Education and Practice with abbreviated description (NASP, 2010)	Example candidate evidences
1.0 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences Understand and use knowledge of how exceptionalities may interact with development and learning to provide meaningful and challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.	2.8 Diversity in Development and Learning Knowledge of individual differences, abilities, disabilities, and other diverse characteristics; principles and research related to diversity factors for children, families, and schools, including factors related to culture, context, and individual and role differences; and evidence-based strategies to enhance services and address potential influences related to diversity. Demonstrate skills to provide professional services that promote effective functioning for individuals, families, and schools with diverse characteristics, cultures, and backgrounds and across multiple contexts.	Write plans for culturally responsive practice Case studies with learners from diverse backgrounds
2.0 Learning Environments Create safe, inclusive, culturally responsive learning environments so that individuals with exceptionalities become active and effective learners and develop emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-determination.	2.4 Interventions and Mental Health Services to Develop Social and Life SkillsKnowledge of biological, cultural, developmental, and social influences on behavior and mental health; behavioral and emotional impacts on learning and life skills; and evidence-based strategies to promote social-emotional functioning, and mental and behavioral health. Demonstrate skills to use assessment and data collection methods and to implement and evaluate services that support socialization, learning, and mental and behavioral health.2.5 Schoolwide Practices to Promote Learning Knowledge of school and systems structure, organization, and theory; general and special education; technology resources; and evidence-based school practices that promote academic outcomes, learning, social development, and mental health. Demonstrate skills to develop and implement practices and strategies to create and maintain effective and supportive learning environments for children and others.	Classroom management plan Conduct FBA Write a BIP Behavior case study
3.0 Curricular Content Knowledge Use knowledge of general and specialized curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.	2.3 Interventions and Instructional Support to Develop Academic Skills Knowledge of biological, cultural, and social influences on academic skills; human learning, cognitive, and developmental processes; and evidence-based curriculum and instructional strategies. Demonstrate skills to use assessment and data collection methods and to implement and evaluate services that support cognitive and academic skills.	Lesson plan development Academic case study
4.0 Assessment Use multiple methods of assessment and data sources in making educational decisions.	2.1 Data-Based Decision Making and Accountability Knowledge of varied methods of assessment and data collection methods for identifying strengths and needs, developing effective services and programs, and measuring progress and outcomes. Demonstrate skills to use psychological and educational assessment, data collection strategies, and technology resources and apply results to design, implement, and evaluate response to services and programs.	Conduct assessments Write assessment report Present assessment information during an eligibility meeting
5.0 Instructional Planning and Strategies Select, adapt, and use a repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies to advance learning of individuals with exceptionalities.		Write IEPsWrite lesson plansCurriculum reviews
6.0 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice Use foundational knowledge of the field and their professional ethical principles and practice standards to inform special education practice, to engage in lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.	2.10 Legal, Ethical, and Professional Practice Knowledge of the history and foundations of school psychology; multiple service models and methods; ethical, legal, and professional standards; and other factors related to professional identity and effective practice as school psychologists.Demonstrate skills to provide services consistent with ethical, legal, and professional standards; engage in responsive ethical and professional decision making; collaborate with other professionals; and apply professional work characteristics needed for effective practice as school psychologists, including respect for human diversity and social justice, communication skills, effective interpersonal skills, responsibility, adaptability, initiative, dependability, and technology skills.	Participate in eligibility and IEP meetingsDevelop legally correct IEPs and assessment reportsDeliver special education services in compliance with federal/state laws and ethical guidelines
7.0 Collaboration Collaborate with families, other educators, related service providers, individuals with exceptionalities, and personnel from community agencies in culturally responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with exceptionalities across a range of learning experiences.	2.2 Consultation and Collaboration Knowledge of varied methods of consultation, collaboration, and communication applicable to individuals, families, groups, and systems and used to promote effective implementation of services.Demonstrate skills to consult, collaborate, and communicate with others during design, implementation, and evaluation of services and programs.2.7 Family–School Collaboration Services Knowledge of principles and research related to family systems, strengths, needs, and culture; evidence-based strategies to support family influences on children’s learning, socialization, and mental health; and methods to develop collaboration between families and schools.Demonstrate skills to design, implement, and evaluate services that respond to culture and context and facilitate family and school partnership interactions with community agencies for enhancement of academic and social–behavioral outcomes for children.	Participate in eligibility and IEP meetingsCollaborate with families, school personnel, and the community

Note. CEC = Council for Exceptional Children; NASP = National Association of School Psychologists; IEP = individualized education program; FBA = functional behavioral assessment; BIP = behavior intervention plan.

Although the details of the knowledge and skills related to each field vary by specialization, the structure of preparation programs for school psychologists and special education teachers needs to ensure adequate development of knowledge and skills as well as the application of these skills to the educational setting. Both CEC and NASP include standards for field experience; these standards address the importance of partnerships between supervisors in the field and university-based supervisors. The standards require performance-based assessments of candidates, including demonstration that they are positively affecting student learning (CEC, 2015, 2017; NASP, 2010).

Online Education as a Solution to School Psychology and Special Education Teacher Shortages in Rural Environments

Distance education is not a new concept to the fields of school psychology and special education teacher preparation (Bailey & Zumeta, 2015; Jameson & McDonnell, 2007; Rooks-Ellis, 2017; Ruby, Chaffin, & Islam-Zwart, 2017). For example, Jameson and McDonnell (2007) described a 25-year evolution of distance teacher education at the University of Utah. Likewise, Ruby et al. provide an account of the morphing of the distance education school psychology graduate program at Eastern Washington University. With improvements in technology over time, the programs at the University of Utah and Eastern Washington University were able to become more accessible to a greater range of people as well as increase the quality of distance education.

Despite numerous examples of successful online/distance education programs in the field of education (e.g., Bailey & Zumeta, 2015; Jameson & McDonnell, 2007; Rooks-Ellis, 2017; Ruby et al., 2017), most teacher education and school psychology certification programs continue to utilize the traditional approach of face-to-face professional education (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education, 2016). Unfortunately, one prominent challenge for candidates in rural areas is their distance from a university (Canter, Voytecki, & Rodriguez, 2007). Many candidates lack the ability to leave their homes and families to access residential programs at universities. To increase candidate enrollment, institutions of higher education should continue to increase the development of innovative and accessible high-quality certification programs to attract people to the various fields of special education service delivery. Online programs provide opportunities for candidates who are interested in becoming special education personnel even when they are unable to physically access a university campus (Canter et al., 2007).

Many institutions of higher education resist the development of online programs due to concerns about the ability to maintain the quality of instruction, student learning, and instructor to student relationships (Ubell, 2017). However, Allen and Seaman (2014) reported that 66% of chief academic leaders said online learning is critical to their long-term strategy. In addition, many universities have become more confident in outcomes for online learning, with 74% of academic leaders rating the learning outcomes in online education as the same or superior to those in face-to-face instruction (Allen & Seaman, 2014). Several studies confirm the finding that learning outcomes from online programs are similar or superior to face-to-face programs (Means, 2009). McDonnell et al. (2011) found no significant differences in learning between students in their online learning and on-campus teacher education cohorts. Similarly, Ruby et al. (2017) found candidates in their online school psychology graduate program were often more competitive upon application, developed comparable or higher knowledge and skills, and demonstrated stronger professional dispositions than candidates in their traditional face-to-face graduate school psychology program.

Elements of High-Quality Distance Education

The literature for distance education programs in the field of education consistently identifies several critical elements for a successful program. In an early article exploring online engagement of learners, Canter et al. (2007) emphasized the importance of active student participation for distance education. The authors describe best practices for high-quality learner-to-learner interactions, learner-to-instructor interactions, and learner-to-content interactions within online instruction. Newer resources (Clark & Mayer, 2016; Sharpton, 2011; Ubell, 2017) provide specific recommendations for online program delivery as well. Clark and Mayer (2016) emphasized that new online technologies are most effective when human cognitive learning processes are taken into consideration in course development. According to Clark and Mayer, the most appropriate online teaching methods depend on the goals of the training program. Clark and Mayer recommend that virtual collaborative learning address primary goals for developing future educators. Specifically, the authors list six principles for computer-mediated collaboration for learning: (a) consider collaborative assignments for challenging tasks; (b) optimize group size, composition, and interdependence; (c) match synchronous and asynchronous assignments to the collaborative goal; (d) use collaborative tool features that optimize team processes and products; (e) maximize social presence in online collaborative environments; and (f) use structured collaboration processes to optimize team outcomes.

Ubell (2017) purported that universities running successful online programs offer nearly identical programs on-campus and online with students of similar academic profiles in both modalities. He points out that programs created in the early “dot-com” boom often failed when they hired faculty from outside the university to deliver programs independent of their current offerings. He recommends universities to build on their existing strengths as they develop online program options, utilizing faculty who are familiar with the institution’s mission and values.

Sharpton (2011) provided an example of specific steps taken by one university to shift a low incidence disability teacher education program to a distance education model for increased sustainability. Similar to recommendations from Clark and Mayer (2016), Sharpton’s recommendations include a balance of synchronous and asynchronous instruction and consistent organization across online classes. Given the performance-based nature of educator programs, Sharpton also outlined key components for field assignments. Field assignments are most successful when instructors provide a rationale for completing activities, steps, and a timeline for assignment completion; a rubric for evaluation of complete activities; evidences to document the process and outcomes of activities; alignment to professional standards; and specific readings and resources to support activities.

In response to an increase in the online delivery of university courses, universities and other organizations have begun to create guidelines and measurement tools for evaluation of the quality of their design and delivery. For example, based on Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education and recommendations made by Graham, Cagiltay, Lim, Craner, and Duffy (2001), Colorado State University’s The Institute for Teaching and Learning (TITL) developed a guide for their faculty of best practices related to online course delivery (Stewart & Kogan, 2015). In addition to Chickering and Gamson’s seven principles (i.e., student–faculty contact, cooperation among students, active learning, prompt feedback, time on task, the communication of high expectations, and respect for diverse talents and ways of learning), Stewart and Kogan (2015) identified the establishment of (clear) course procedures and effective use of technology as two additional principles that should be idealized during online and on-campus instruction.

A nonprofit international organization called Quality Matters (QM) has become another common source of guidance for the development and delivery of effective online instruction. Via annual member subscriptions and fee-for-service offerings, QM supports research and develops tools to improve the quality of online instruction. For example, QM has developed a QM Higher Education Rubric, Fifth Edition (Maryland Online, 2014), which is used to rate the quality of online courses in higher education. This rubric rates online courses relative to specific standards in eight different categories: course overview introduction, learning objectives, assessment and measurement, instructional materials, course activities and learner interaction, course technology, learner support, and accessibility and usability.

Recognizing the similar standards that drive the outcomes of special education teacher and school psychologist preparation programs, we provide an overview of a successful online graduate school psychology program offered by our university (Ruby et al., 2017). We believe the design of this program should be considered by universities looking to develop online school psychology and/or special education preparation programs. This program serves as an example of one solution to reducing the shortage of school psychologists. Similar to prospective special education teachers who live in rural areas, accessibility, family, community, and job obligations often prevent interested school psychology candidates from relocating to join training programs that are geographically distant from their communities. We believe that the model presented here may be easily replicated as a certification program for school psychologists or special education teachers.

Although we describe effective components of online instruction within the online school psychology graduate program, we also highlight ways to recruit candidates in rural districts and recommend strategies for interaction between university supervisors and site-based supervisors (i.e., certified school psychologists or mentor teachers in a teacher education program). Finally, we offer recommendations for institutions considering the development of an online school psychology or online special education program.

Model Online School Psychology Graduate Program

In Washington State, only four institutions provide on-site training for school psychology, and the state has documented a growing shortage of school psychologists each year (Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2016). Over 96% of the geographic region in the state of Washington is considered rural (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). In 52% of the state’s school districts, less than 1,000 students are enrolled. Another 17% of the state’s districts have between 1,001 and 2,500 students enrolled (Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2016).

To address the shortage of school psychologists in our state and around the country, our institution developed an online school psychology graduate program with the goal to make respecialization in school psychology as accessible as possible to appropriately qualified candidates in geographically diverse locations. The program has sought and trained special educators, school counselors, and clinicians to become school psychologists since 2001. Since 2010, the distance technology features have improved significantly, and consequently, the program requirements have become more rigorous to reflect a comprehensive training program with comparable curriculum, assessment, and outcomes to the university’s on-campus school psychology program. A traditional, on-campus, face-to-face school psychology graduate program as well as the online school psychology graduate program exist at the university; hence, student-learning outcomes, professional dispositions, and candidate/supervisor satisfaction can be analyzed across the two modalities of instruction.

General Overview of the Online School Psychology Graduate Program

Applicants to the online school psychology graduate program must have either a graduate degree or a bachelor’s degree with significant experience in an educational, counseling, or mental health background. Most candidates remain in their jobs at least part time during the first year of the program, thus providing a program that is flexible in design for working professionals. Funding for the program varies from student to student. Some students pay for the full cost of the program without assistance; other candidates receive financial support from the school districts where they currently work.

The program involves two intensive summers and two academic years of study. During the first academic year, candidates complete practicum at least 1 day per week, and during the second year, they complete a full-time internship with 2 hr minimum of intensive supervision per week. Most of the content across program courses are delivered in an asynchronous online fashion; however, each Monday night, candidates meet online for live instructional sessions appropriate to each course. Candidates also complete weekly modules in their courses that are consistent in structure with their other courses. The online environment is highly structured and consistent across courses throughout the program.

At the beginning of each school year, candidates and instructors meet in person for an intensive 3.5 day on-site gathering. Candidates have group advising, individual advising, and are introduced to components of courses that are more challenging to deliver via online instruction (e.g., cognitive assessment and counseling). At this face-to-face gathering, the program checks out materials such as assessment kits to candidates, which helps in avoiding mailing costs to candidates later in the program. Candidates are encouraged to stay in the same hotel where the school psychology program books a group rate. Candidates have the opportunity to have dinners together and spend unstructured time with each other and their instructors in the evening. Recently, the program has matched second year students with first year students for one dinner during the face-to-face gathering to allow for mentoring across cohorts. Candidates have provided high ratings of their on-site experiences, citing the ability to interact with each other in person as the greatest benefit of the gatherings.

The online school psychology graduate program has conducted minimal efforts at marketing, yet the program’s application rates are increasing yearly, mostly due to word of mouth and from recommendations of nearby institutions that do not offer online programming. Less than 20 candidates applied for the 2014–2015 academic year, 30 candidates applied for 2015–2016, 69 candidates applied for 2016–2017, 94 candidates applied for 2017–2018, and 129 candidates applied for 2018–2019. Several tenure-track faculty members from the on-campus school psychology program teach in the online program, and a director is provided release time for administrative responsibilities. For the 2016–2017 academic year, two full-time lecturers were hired and the program accepted two cohorts, each with 12 candidates. A full-time tenure-track faculty member will be hired to support the online program for the 2018–2019 academic year. The program aims to maintain faculty-to-student ratios of 1:12 as recommended by NASP (2010).

Recruitment in Rural Districts

Special education directors in rural school districts often contact our university looking for school psychologists to fill vacant positions. The program’s faculty encourage districts that are continually faced with school psychologist shortages to “build from within” by encouraging and supporting their staff who are interested in respecializing as school psychologists. Partnering districts agree to provide release time for field experiences, and some districts have provided candidates with tuition assistance or complete coverage when the candidate agrees to sign a contract that she or he will work in the district as a school psychologist for a given number of years. This model has proven both motivating to the candidate and assuring to the district for future employment success.

Some states such as Washington (as of September 1, 2019) require those who seek a special education teaching endorsement to hold a second endorsement in another endorsement area other than special education, early childhood special education, bilingual education, English language learner, or traffic safety. In other words, Washington State will only offer special education as an “add-on endorsement.” Hence, similar to the candidates in our institution’s school psychology graduate program, potential future special education teachers in Washington State will, by the very nature of the special education endorsement in Washington State, be existing teachers who are “respecializing” into the field of special education. When special education certification is an add-on endorsement, such as is the case in Washington State, the “build from within” model is highly appropriate.

Instructor-to-Instructor Interactions

Although not identified in the literature as one of the components of effective online instruction, faculty of the online school psychology graduate program believe quality instructor-to-instructor interactions are one of the most essential components for a successful program. The team approach provides support for instructors at various points in online course development and delivery while fostering a cohesive program-wide experience for candidates. To ensure consistent quality instruction, instructors are provided with regular training from our university’s online learning office, require adherence to a program teaching guide, and meet biweekly for program updates and discussions regarding challenges and success in the program. Our university assigns both an instructional designer and a media expert to instructors teaching in the program. These technology experts help with the development of components of the course contents and with needed course updates. The university also provides software for lecture development/recording, access to web cameras, microphones, headsets, and other media technology needed for successful online course delivery. Instructors also share files in a teaching resource Dropbox such as syllabi, course assessments and rubrics, student contact information, and program guidance documents such as the program handbook, teaching guide, and practicum/internship handbooks. Instructors utilize current research regarding evidence-based practices for e-learning to continually update their instructional practices. Faculty share this information during program committee meetings, and the program director updates the teaching guide on an ongoing basis to include new effective methodologies.

Supervision Agreements and Interaction

Similar to the training needs of prospective special education teachers, field-based experiences are a prominent part of the training of school psychologist candidates. Hence, quality interactions between university supervisors and site supervisors are essential for successful candidate outcomes. To ensure quality supervision, program faculty train and utilize current certified school psychologists as supervisors whenever possible in the local district where each candidate lives. When districts do not have adequate school psychologists to provide supervision, the program requires that they contract with needed supervisors and meet the necessary supervision time requirements for the applicant to be eligible for the program. During their interview for program admissions, candidates identify their contacts in local school districts, and the school psychology program director reaches out to establish relationships. The program provides a practicum agreement form that details required interactions between candidates, their site-based supervisors, and their university supervisors. Specific experiences that are required through the field placement are detailed and explained through required video conferencing that takes place at the beginning of the field-site experience and three additional times across the academic year. Both audio and video components are required during these meetings. The program offers a video conferencing system that is utilized for these meetings but other systems such as Facetime, Skype, or Zoom have been utilized when the content of the meeting does not include confidential material. An online scheduling application such as Doodle is used to schedule meetings across time zones and busy agendas. The university supervisors are required to be easily accessible and place an early focus on relationship building, which promotes open and real-time communication from our site supervisors. All student documentation of their field experiences are kept digitally, which enables both the site supervisor and the university supervisor to review progress on the same document at the same time. Dropboxes, Google Drive folders, or other cloud-based systems can also be used between the student and their site supervisor, enabling the supervisor to check on their student’s development at any time. University supervisors guide this planning during the first video conference meeting.

Learner-to-Learner Interactions

As stated previously, consistent with Canter et al. (2007), newer literature on effective online instruction continues to emphasize the importance of collaboration across learners in education programs (Clark & Mayer, 2016). Our institution’s online school psychology graduate program achieves this in several ways. Candidates begin the program with an intensive summer session that lasts 8 weeks. Prior to the summer experience, they have not met each other in person, so development of a collaborative environment relies completely on e-learning strategies. Canter et al. report that discussion board forums lead to increased participation of all candidates, including less vocal candidates who might not speak up in a traditional classroom setting. Discussions may be synchronous or asynchronous and might include whole class, small group, instructor–student, and student–student formats. It can include video, audio, or text participation. The online school psychology graduate program includes asynchronous discussion boards that open each Saturday morning at 12:00 a.m. and close the following Saturday at midnight. Instructors provide a prompt that often requires candidates to watch lectures and read assigned chapters/articles before responding. Candidates cannot see posts from other classmates until they have provided their initial posts, due each Wednesday by midnight. Candidates respond to at least two other classmates prior to the closing of the discussion board on Saturday at midnight. These weekly due dates and posting requirements are consistent across courses. Instructors use a standard rubric provided by the program to grade discussion board posts. Although many may question the quality and depth of communication in online forums compared with discussions in traditional face-to-face classrooms, the school psychology faculty find rich depth in candidate communication with one another. Being located in various settings allows candidates to explore meaningful differences in their schools’ environments and the impact of context on their work in practice.

Several instructors use breakout sessions during their live Monday night sessions in Blackboard Collaborate or Zoom. This provides opportunity for candidates to work in smaller groups and report back on their work to the larger group following their breakout sessions. The instructor creates the groups digitally and can move from group to group to check on progress and answer any questions the candidates may have. Instructors describe these sessions as highly productive and engaging for candidates. Students are able to use a digital whiteboard, share imagines, create and collect notes from each group discussion, and share them out on the main whiteboard when they come back together as a class.

The on-site visit in the fall brings candidates together in person after intensely working together online in the summer. Candidates highly value this opportunity to have more casual conversations and extended time together. The school psychology faculty also encourage candidates to attend professional conferences together. The online school psychology graduate program also encourages learner-to-learner interactions outside of the course environment, including text messaging and the use of social media for communication. The program recognizes the inherent challenges associated with social media use and require candidates to read and sign a “Commitment to Positive Learning Environment” agreement that is included in their program handbook.

Learner-to-Instructor Interactions

Instructors for the online school psychology graduate program establish an environment of open communication and collaboration with their initial course activities. All instructors include an introductory video that welcomes candidates to the course and provides a general overview of course requirements and activities. The first week’s discussion board post generally involves sharing regarding candidate background knowledge and perspectives in the area covered by the course. Instructors are expected to respond to student requests/messages within 48 hr, regardless of the day of the week, as the program recognizes that candidates are often completing academic work on the weekends and may need instructional support. Although all instructors follow program guidelines in terms of timeliness of response to candidates, they may use a variety of instructional and communication modalities. Instructors choose a combination of approaches from the following elements: (a) video lecture, (b) PowerPoint (PPT) with voice over (developed with support from audio and video experts through Eastern Online, utilizing the program PPT template), (c) video/audio announcements, (d) module introductory video/PPT with voice over, (e) video/audio feedback on assignments, (f) Canvas messaging systems, (g) video conference office hours/advising sessions, (h) text messaging, and (i) traditional email/phone calls.

Learner-to-Content Interactions

Because the online environment can be difficult for candidates to navigate, the program seeks candidates who are flexible and adaptable in working online. The admission interview requires candidates to participate in a Zoom session with three admissions committee faculty members. Candidates are provided with opportunities to learn the video-conferencing system prior to their interview. During the interview, the program faculty are able to assess candidate comfort and responsiveness in learning the online system.

Following acceptance in the program, the students attend a preliminary course through our Eastern Online department that teaches them how to use Canvas and Zoom. They learn how to attach files to assignments, how to read electronic feedback from their instructors, and how to access some of the advanced features that are available. Our university provides a student helpline for help with technology, and program faculty also provide an orientation to the program-specific expectations in Canvas. To reduce confusion for candidates, the program uses a highly structured and consistent template within Canvas. The components are similar across courses and are guided by the program teaching guide.

Candidates commit to obtaining and using specific technology throughout their time in the program. For example, candidates must have access to high bandwidth through a direct Internet connection (no wireless), a webcam, and a headset with microphone. They must also have the ability to participate through web-conferencing classes and the ability to scan documents to PDF. Candidates in some rural areas may experience difficulty accessing adequate Internet due to poor satellite connectivity. These candidates agree to drive to locations with better connectivity for Monday night live sessions.

Learning Outcomes for the Online School Psychology Graduate Program

Ruby et al. (2017) compared complete data for candidates in the online school psychology graduate program described in this article with the on-campus school psychology graduate program offered at the same institution. Candidates completing the online school psychology graduate program demonstrated comparable and sometimes higher performance on a competency exam (Revised Praxis II School Psychology Subject Test), portfolio ratings, and supervisor ratings of knowledge, skills, and professional dispositions than candidates in the on-campus school psychology program. For example, the authors compared the mean performance on the Revised Praxis II School Psychology Subject Test of candidates graduating in 2015 to 2018 from the on-campus and online programs. Candidates in the online program (n = 20) achieved a mean score of 172.9 (SD = 8.2), whereas candidates in the on-campus program (n = 18) achieved a mean total score of 169.8 (SD = 8.1). Although these initial findings need replication, the online program has also consistently received positive feedback from candidates in the program. On an end-of-program survey, a candidate shared,

I told myself I would never go back to school, even though I’d dreamt about becoming a school psychologist. I didn’t want the hassle that I knew going back to school would encompass and I couldn’t afford to quit my job to move somewhere to go to school. This program was truly a blessing for me and helped make my dream of becoming a school psychologist come true. . . While the thought of classes online was daunting, after starting and getting to know my professors, those fears quickly dissipated. . . I highly recommend it to anyone interested in continuing their education and interested in the field of school psychology.

These measures suggest learning outcomes of the online school psychology graduate program are comparable or superior to the on-campus school psychology graduate program.

Generalizing the Online School Psychology Graduate Program Model for Special Education Teacher Training

Our online school psychology graduate program serves as a model for both new online school psychology programs as well as special education teacher programs. The professional standards for special education teachers and school psychologists are highly similar (CEC, 2015; NASP, 2010). Both require development of knowledge, technical skills, and professional dispositions needed to support students with challenging learning and behavior problems while working collaboratively with other educators, administrators, specialists, and families. Although many question the ability of online technology to effectively develop these areas (Allen & Seaman, 2014), new evidence suggests distance education is not only possible but needed to meet the pressing shortages of school psychologists and special education teachers in rural schools today (Heafner, Petty, & Hartshorne, 2011; Ludlow & Brannan, 2010; Sharpton, 2011).

To further assist universities in the development of online preparation programs for special education personnel such as school psychologists and special education teachers, we have developed a list of activities that should be completed to ensure the development of a high-quality online school psychology or special education teacher program (see Table 2). Although some of these activities should logically be completed before others, our list does not necessarily represent a particular sequence within which these activities must be completed.

Table 2.

Recommended Activities to Create an Online School Psychology or Special Education Program.

Activity	Considerations for the activity
• Establish commitment and readiness	• Get departmental buy-in and approval• Form a committee to conceptualize the program• Establish community partners and seek input• Articulate the program’s philosophy and aim• Establish clear learning outcomes• Establish measures for learning outcomes• Align courses to national/state requirements• Identify appropriate instructional practices to achieve mastery of learning outcomes• Develop courses based on desired learning outcomes
• Seek approval	• Get higher administration approval (dean, provost) and a commitment of support• Seek state-level and accrediting body approval (wait for opportunity for public comment period, normally 1 month)• Formalize university curriculum approval
• Establish program resources	• Establish a director for the program• Identify faculty with qualifications and expertise to teach courses
• Develop program policies and procedures	• Establish applicant criteria• Articulate application requirements• Consider funding options for candidates• Formalize program policies and procedures for students and faculty• Clarify required components of online course structure• Agree on consistent synchronous session schedule for live classes (day[s] of week)
• Work with university to acquire content management system, software programs	• Live session technology (Zoom)• Content management system (Canvas)• Scheduling software (Doodle)• Survey software (Survey Monkey/Poll Everywhere)• Dropbox (we used the paid version)• Go React (secure video recording for students record practicing cognitive/achievement test administrations)• Collaborate/WebX (lecture recording software such as Panopto)
• Train faculty and establish sustainable resources and continuous improvement	• Establish file-sharing resources for instructors• Train instructors in the use of technology• Develop, schedule, and implement regular instructor PLC (professional learning community) meetings, continuing education opportunities, and biweekly instructor team program committee meetings• Establish schedule and components for required on-site candidate training
• Formalize field experience components	• Identify appropriately certified supervisors in school districts where each student will participate in practicum/internship• Provide training for field experience supervisors in candidates’ local school districts
• Establish and implement marketing strategies	• Conference attendance and presentations• Association promotion• Network with neighboring rural districts
• Deliver beginning-of-program intensive program	• Include opportunities for hands-on training, social gatherings, and group advising• Conduct faculty and student surveys for continuous improvement

Development of an online program does not happen quickly. As Clark and Mayer (2016) suggested, those interested in building programs must first establish their goals and then select the best instructional strategies to meet these goals. We recommend that program faculty assess current needs, build partnerships, and consider the multiple strategies to develop strong instructor-to-instructor, instructor-to-site supervisor, learner-to-learner, learner-to-instructor, and learner-to-content interactions. Just as in face-to-face programs, program assessment data will identify areas for development and adjustment, and program learning outcomes will guide the way for continuous program improvement.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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