Small crucibles were found at Tal-i-lblis, Iran (late 5th millenium BC). Possibilities of smelting carbonate ore placed in copies of such crucibles were tested by C. S. Smith during trial smelts organized on the site. The opera-tion resulted in the production of small copper nodules. ‘Investigations at Tal-i-lblis’, (ed. CaldwellR. J.), 17–20, 336, 174–176; 1967, Springfield, Ill.
2.
TylecoteR. F. et al ‘A study of early copper smelting and working sites in Israel’, J. Inst. Metals, 1967, 95, 235.
3.
LupuBa. A.and Rothenburg: ‘The extraction metallurgy of the Early Iron Age in the Arabah, Israel’,Archaeologia Austriaca, 1970, 47,94–95.
4.
SteinbergFb. A.and Koucky: ‘Preliminary metallurgical research in the ancient Cypriot copper industry’, in: ‘American expedition to Idalion, Cyprus’, (ed.StagerL. E. et al.) ; 1974, Cambridge, Mass.
5.
WertimeC. T. A.: ‘Reconnaisance expedition in Turkey 1970 and 1971, Archeologické rozhledy,1972, 24, (2), 192–193.
6.
WertimeT. A.: ‘Man's first encounter with metallurgy’, Science, 1964, 146, 1257-1267; ‘A metallurgical expedi-tion through the Persian desert’, Science, 1968, 159, 927-935; ‘Pyrotechnology: Man's first industrial uses of fire’, Amer.Scientist, 1973,61, (6), 670–682.
7.
This order of events seems to support Dr Tylecote's ana-logical view although he writes (p.40) that the idea of adding iron oxide fluxes and the discovery of smelted iron should not be attributed to Near Eastern people only, even if they had the longest and best experience with copper extraction. I hold just such primitive copper smelters as potential inventors of ironmaking, which is one of the possibilities indicated by Dr Tylecote.
8.
RenfrewC.: ‘The autonomy of the South-East European Copper Age’, Proc. Prehistoric Society, 1969, 1970, 12–47.
9.
CernychE. N.: ‘Al Bounar, une mine de cuivre du lye millenaire dans les Balcans (fouilles de1971, 19721974)’, in Russian with a French summary, Sovetskaya archeologiya, 1975, 4, 132–153. Simultaneously, there were explored copper mines of the Chalcolithic VinIa-PloInik culture in Yugoslavia, of approximately the same date, see B. Joyanovió:Metallurgiya eneolitskog perioda Yugoslaviye ; 1971, Belgrade Archaeological Institute
10.
Some authors would still prefer to see independent (though belated) origins of iron technology, e.g. in Central Europe (S. Foltiny: ‘Athens and the East Hallstatt region in cultural interrelations at the dawn of the Iron Age’, Amer. J. Archaeology, 1961, 65, 283–297; W. Kimmig: ‘Seevölker Bewegung und Urnenfelderkultur’, in Studien aus Alt-Europa 1, 244; 1964, Koln, Graz, Bohlau Verlag), or in Armenia (among Georgian and Armenian ar-chaeologists, G. E. Aresyan ; ‘Drevneysie centry metallurgii ieleza v zapadnoy Azil i vostoënom Sredizem nomore’, Vestnik Yerevanskogo universiteta, 1974, (3), 124–138) ; and in India (D. Chakrabarti ; ‘The beginning of iron in India’, Antiquity, 1976, 50, 114–124). Their conclusions rely on data of differing validity.
11.
Thus the beginning of iron in Greece is put once at about 900 BC, and elsewhere at 1100 BC; similarly in China (400 BC and 600 BC). According to the information available the first iron appears in Greece in the 14th-13th centuries BC; the 12th-11th centuries are marked by iron weapons: A. M. Snodgrass (‘Dark age Greece’, 213; 1971, Edinburgh, University Press) sees a temporary regression about 1 000 BC. The Iron Age in terms of using iron in agriculture and civil life and of introducing progressive techniques must have started at about 800 BC. On China see the text. The Luristan iron swords ascribed to c.1100 BC mentioned in context with iron in Iran, can hardly date before 800 BC.
12.
ForbesR. J.: ‘Studies in ancient technology’, Vol. 9, 123–174; 1964, Leyden, Brill.
13.
Based on analyses published in: S. Junghans at al.: ‘Kupfer und Bronze in der frühen Metallzeit Europas’, ‘Studien zu den Anfängen der Metallurgie’, 1–11; 1968, Berlin.
14.
The steel of Noricum is attested by metallography and discussed in many papers, e.g. 0. Schaaber: ‘Beitrage zur Frage des norischen Eisens’, Carinthia I, 1963, 153, 129–279; Beitrage zur Geschichte des Eisens im alpen-landischen Raum, BerichtNo. 57des Geschichts-auschusses des Vereines Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, Düsseldorf (miscellany of papers). For trade in Norician iron, seeR. Egger: ‘Die Stadt auf dem Magdalensberg - em n Grosshandelplati ; 1961, Vienna Bohlau's Nachf., (written records).
15.
PertlwieserM.: ‘Die hallstattzeitliche Höhensiedlung auf dem Waschenberg bei Bad Wimsbach II - Objekte, Werkstätte, Metallanalysen’, Jahrbuch des Oberöster-reichischen Musealvereines, 1970, 115, 37–70.
16.
PeletP.-L.‘Fer-charbon-acier, une industrie méconnue dans le pays de Vaud'; 1973, Lausanne, Bibliotheque Historique Vaudoise.
17.
For the medieval iron industry in West Germany see the standard work by M. Sönnecken: ‘Die mittelaterliche Rennfeuerverhiittung im Märkischen Sauerland ; 1971, Minster; the extent of the field work there is remarkable and covers the transitional period from bloomery hearths to the earliest blast furnaces (Haus Rhade). The metal-lurgical evaluation of the site mentioned is contained in the late B. Ossann's ‘Rennverfahren und Anfänge der Roh-einsenerzeugung 1–11 ; 1971, Düsseldorf, Verein Deuts-cher Eisenhattenleute. For Scandinavia, see, for example, the monograph by I. Serning ; ‘Forhistorisk jänrhantering i Dalarna”; 1973, Grangesberg. Space precludes references to many other items.
18.
TholanderE.published interesting observations concern-ing the earliest allusion to this technique made on iron knives from Idalion (see ‘Evidence for the use of the carburized steel and quench hardening in Late Bronze Age Cyprus’, Opuscula Atheniensia (Stockholm), 1971, X-3, 15–22).
19.
The existing bibliography is extensive. One may mention the large assemblages investigated metallographically, e.g. by J. Emmerling (La Töne and early medieval weapons), byTomtlundJ. E., ThalinL., and ModinS.(pre-Viking and Viking tools), bytramkoB. A.et al. (Scythian iron finds), by F. K. Naumann, D. Horstmann, and R. Pusch (medieval irons), by J. Stankus (east Baltic early medieval objects), and especially by B. A. Kolöin, who started large-scale investigations of early medieval Russian artefacts in 1953, and found many successors in his country and abroad.
20.
TylecoteR. F. and ThomsenR.: ‘The segregation and surface-enrichment of arsenic and phosphorus in early artefacts’, Archaeometry, 1973, 15,193–198.
21.
BarnardN. and TamotsuS.: ‘Metallurgical remains of Ancient China’; 1975, Tokyo, Niahiosha.
22.
TerechovaN. N.‘Technologiya ‘öugunnoliteynogo proiz-vodstva u drevnych Mongolov’, Sovetskaya archaeologiya, 1974, 1, 69–78; the artefacts have elevated P and S contents, indicating mineral fuel. A. M. Efimova: ternaya metallurgiya goroda Bolgara’, in: Materialy i issledovaniya po archaeologii SSSR, 61, 306–310 ; 1958, Moscow.
23.
EfimovaA. M.‘Cernaya metallurgiya goroda Bolgara’, in: Materialy i issledovaniya po archeologii SSSR, 61, 306, 1958, Moscow.
