High-stakes tests are often used as agents for change, but ‘attempts to
introduce change in the classroom are often not as effective as their designers
hoped they would be’ (Wall, 1996: 334). The National Matriculation English
Test (NMET) in China is such a case. Apart from its primary function of selecting
candidates for institutions of higher education, the NMET was designed specifically
to promote changes in ELT (English language teaching) in schools. Unfortunately, it
has fallen short of the goal. This study set out to examine the reasons why the NMET
failed to bring about the intended changes or washback effects. For this purpose,
data were collected through interview and questionnaire from 8 NMET constructors, 6
English inspectors, 388 teachers and 986 students. The results show that the most
important reason for the test failing to achieve the intended washback is that its
two major functions - the selection function and the function of promoting change -
are in many ways in conflict with each other, making it a powerful trigger for
teaching to the test but an ineffective agent for changing teaching and learning in
the way intended by its constructors and the policymakers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alderson, J. C.
and
Hamp-Lyons, L.1996:
TOEFL preparation courses: a study of washback
. Language Testing13,
280-297
.
2.
Alderson, J. C.
and
Wall, D.1993:
Does washback exist?Applied Linguistics14,
115-129
.
3.
Andrews, S.1994: Washback or washout? The relationship between examination
reform and curriculum innovation. In
Berry, R.
, editor, Bringing about change in language education.
Hong Kong: Department of Curriculum Studies,
University of Hong Kong
, 67-81.
4.
Anonymous1981: English for senior secondary school students.
Beijing: People’s Education Press
.
5.
Anonymous1997: The English curriculum for senior middle schools.
Beijing: People’s Education Press
.
Anonymous1998b:
Proofreading
. Foreign language teaching in schools21,
17-18
.
8.
Anonymous1999: NMET syllabus.
Beijing: China Higher Education Press
.
9.
Anonymous2004:
Candidature increased by 1.1 million
. Yangcheng Evening News1, June 6.
10.
Bailey, K. M.1996:
Working for washback: a review of the washback concept in language testing
. Language Testing13,
257-279
.
11.
Bracey, G. W.1987:
Measurement-driven instruction: catchy phrase, dangerous practice
. Phi Delta Kappan68,
683-686
.
12.
Cheng, L.1997:
How does washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong Kong
. Language and Education11,
38-54
.
13.
Cheng, L. 1998: The washback effect of public examination change on classroom
teaching: an impact study of the 1996 Hong Kong Certificate of Education in English
on the classroom teaching of English in Hong Kong secondary schools. Unpublished PhD
thesis, University of Hong Kong.
14.
Frederiksen, N.1984:
The real test bias: influences of testing on teaching and learning
. American Psychologist39,
193-202
.
15.
Gui, S.
,
Li, X.
and
Li, W.1988: A reflection on experimenting with the National
Matriculation English Test. In
National Education Examinations Authority
, editor, Theory and practice of standardized tests.
Guangzhou: Guangdong Higher Education Press
, 70-85.
16.
Han, J.1997: The educational statistics yearbook of China.
Beijing: People’s Education Press
.
17.
Harvey, P.1990: A lesson to be learned: Chinese approach to language
learning. In
Dzau, Y. F.
, editor, English in China.
Hong Kong: API Press
, 168-174.
18.
Higher Education Press2002: Analysis of NMET test papers.
Beijing: Higher Education Press
.
19.
Hughes, A.1988: Introducing a needs-based test of English language
proficiency into an English-medium university in Turkey. In
Hughes, A.
, editor, Testing English for university study. ELT Documents 127.
Oxford: Modern English Publications
, 134-146.
20.
Jiang, J.
and
Li, Z.2003:
Mock NMET 2003
. An Express Way to English6,
19-26
.
21.
Li, X.1988: Teaching for use, learning by use and testing through
use. In
Xiao, H.
, editor, Standardized English test and ELT in the middle schools.
Guangzhou: Guangdong Education Press
, 80-90 (in Chinese).
22.
Li, X.1990:
How powerful can a language test be? The MET in China
. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development11,
393-404
.
23.
Li, X.
,
Gui, S.
and
Li, W.1990:
The design of the NMET and ELT in middle schools
. English language teaching and research in primary schools and
middle schools1,
1-27
(in Chinese).
24.
Linn, R. L.2000:
Assessments and accountability
. Educational Researcher29,
4-16
.
25.
Liu, Y.
, editor, 1993: Book of major educational events in
China.
Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education Press
.
26.
Madaus, G. F.1988: The influence of testing on the curriculum. In
Tanner, L. N.
, editor, Critical issues in curriculum: eighty-seventh yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
, 83-121.
27.
Messick, S.1996:
Validity and washback in language testing
. Language Testing13,
241-256
.
28.
Miu, T.1996:
The key to success in the NMET writing task
. English for Primary and Middle Schools8,
31-32
(in Chinese).
29.
Morrow, K.1986: The evaluation of a test of communicative
performance. In
Portal, M.
, editor, Innovations in language testing.
Windsor: NFER-Nelson
, 1-13.
30.
Nolen, S. B.
,
Haladyna, T. M.
and
Haas, N. S.1992:
Uses and abuses of achievement test scores
. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice11,
9-15
.
31.
Pearson, I.1988: Tests as levers for change. In
Chamberlain, D.
and
Baumgardner, R. J.
, editors, ESP in the classroom: practice and evaluation. EDLT
Documents, 128.
Oxford: Modern English Publications
, 98-107.
32.
Popham, W. J.1987:
The merits of measurement-driven instruction
. Phi Delta Kappan68,
679-682
.
33.
Qi, L. 2003: The intended washback of the National Matriculation English Test
in China: intentions and reality. Unpublished PhD thesis, The City University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
34.
Shohamy, E.1993: The power of tests: the impact of language tests on teaching
and learning. NFLC Occasional Paper.
College Park, MD: National Foreign Language
Center, University of Maryland
.
35.
Shohamy, E.2001: The power of tests: a critical perspective on the uses of
language tests.
London: Pearson Education
.
36.
Shohamy, E.
,
Donitsa-Schmidt, S.
and
Ferman, I.1996:
Test impact revisited: washback effect over time
. Language Testing13,
299-317
.
37.
Smith, M. L.1991:
Meaning of test preparation
. American Educational Research Journal28,
521-542
.
38.
Spolsky, B.1994: The examination-classroom backwash cycle: some historical
cases. In
Berry, R.
, editor, Bringing about change in language education: proceedings of the
International Language in Education Conference 1994.
Hong Kong: Department of Curriculum Studies,
The University of Hong Kong
, 55-66.
39.
Stake, R. E.1991: Impact of changes in assessment policy. In
Stake, R. E.
, editor, Advances in program evaluation: using assessment policy to
reform education. Volume 1.
London: JAI Press Inc.
40.
Strauss, A.
and
Corbin, J.1990: Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and
techniques.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
.
41.
Wall, D.1996:
Introducing new tests into traditional systems: insights from general
education and from innovation theory
. Language Testing13,
334-354
.
42.
Wall, D.1997: Impact and washback in language testing. In
Clapham, C.
and
Corson, D.
, editors, Testing and assessment: the Kluwer encyclopedia of language in
education, Volume 7.
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic
, 291-302.
43.
Wall, D.
and
Alderson, J. C.1993:
Examining washback: the Sri Lankan impact study
. Language Testing10,
41-69
.
Watanabe, Y.1996:
Does grammar translation come from the entrance examination? Preliminary
findings from classroom-based research
. Language Testing13,
318-333
.
46.
Wesdorp, H.1982: Backwash effects of language testing in primary and secondary
education.
Amsterdam: Stichting Centrum voor
ondervijsonderzoek van de Universiteit van Amsterdam
.
47.
Yin, H.
and
Lu, N.
, no date: National university enrollment rates remain the same as last
year. Available at www.sina.com.cn (first accessed July 2002).
