This paper examines the importance of palynological site selection criteria, speci”cally basin size, for the detection of vegetation mosaics and small- or local-scale human activity within a spatially diverse, mosaic landscape. Using a site selection strategy which recognizes landscape patchiness, pollen analyses from three small peat basins (10–56 m diameter) in an open, exposed upland valley (>250 m OD) provide records which are sensitive to local vegetation mosaics and small-scale, localized agriculture. The results indicate c. 4000 14C years (4400 cal. years) of land use, with spatial and temporal variations in the valley. Contrasts between the sequences suggest that local pollen production remains an important component of the pollen rain deposited in small peat basins, even in open environments; this is especially true of palynological‘agricultural indicators’. By comparison, sites with regional pollen source areas underestimate the spatial diversity of the upland landscape, and are insensitive to small-scale human activity in an environment where the fragmentary distribution of soils suitable for agriculture favoured a small-scale, dispersed pattern of farming. It is therefore essential to match the spatial resolution of pollen records with the grain size or scale of variations in the environment under investigation in order to sense the scale of mosaics in vegetation and agriculture within patchy landscapes.
Aaby, B. and Berglund, B.E.1986: Characterization of peat and lake deposits. In Berglund, B.E. , editor, Handbook of Holocene palaeoecology and palaeohydrology, Chichester: Wiley , 231–246.
2.
Allen, M.J.2000: High-resolution mapping of Neolithic and Bronze Age chalkland landscapes and land-use: the combination of multiple palaeoenvironmental analyses and topographic modelling. In Fairbairn, A.S. , editor, Plants in Neolithic Britain and beyond, Oxford: Oxbow Books , 9–26.
3.
Anderson, D.E. 1996: Abrupt Holocene climatic change recorded in terrestrial peat sequences from Wester Ross, Scotland. Unpublished D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford.
4.
Anderson, D.E.1998: A reconstruction of Holocene climatic changes from peat bogs in north-west Scotland . Boreas27, 208–224 .
5.
Bailey, M.1989: The concept of the margin in the medieval English economy . Economic History Review Second Series42, 1–17 .
6.
Bakels, C.C.2000: Pollen diagrams and prehistoric fields: the case of Bronze Age Haarlem, the Netherlands . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology109, 205–218 .
7.
Barber, J. , editor 1997: The archaeological investigation of a prehistoric landscape: excavations on Arran 1978–81. Edinburgh: STAR .
8.
Bartley, D.D. and Chambers, C.1992: A pollen diagram, radiocarbon ages and evidence of agriculture on Entwistle Moor, Lancashire . New Phytologist121, 311–320 .
9.
Behre, K.-E.1981: The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams . Pollen et Spores23, 225–245 .
Bennett, K.D.1983: Devensian late-glacial and Flandrian vegetational history at Hockham Mere, Norfolk, England. I. Pollen percentages and concentrations . New Phytologist95, 457–487 .
12.
Bennett, K.D.1994: Annotated catalogue of pollen and pteridophyte spore types of the British Isles. Cambridge: Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge .
13.
Bennett, K.D. and Hill, K.T.1998: Vegetation and fire history in Applecross, north-west Scotland, during the Holocene. Edinburgh: Scottish Natural Heritage Research , Survey and Monitoring Report No. 108.
14.
Bennett, M.R. and Boulton, G.S.1993: Deglaciation of the Younger Dryas or Loch Lomond Stadial ice-field in the northern Highlands, Scotland . Journal of Quaternary Science8, 133–145 .
15.
Bil, A.1990: The Shieling 1600–1840: the case of the Central Scottish Highlands. Edinburgh: John Donald .
16.
Birks, H.H.1972: Studies in the vegetational history of Scotland. II. A radiocarbon-dated pollen diagram from Loch Maree, Ross and Cromarty . New Phytologist71, 731–754 .
17.
Birks, H.J.B.1996: Great Britain–Scotland. In Berglund, B.E. , Birks, H.J.B. , Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. and Wright, H.E. , editors, Palaeoecological events during the last 15000 years: regional syntheses of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe, Chichester: Wiley , 95–143.
18.
Birse, E.L.1971: Assessment of climatic conditions in Scotland. 3. The bioclimatic subregion. Aberdeen: Macaulay Institute for Soil Research .
19.
Bohncke, S.J.P.1988: Vegetation and habitation history of the Callanish Area, Isle of Lewis, Scotland. In Birks, H.H. , Birks, H.J.B. , Kaland, P.R. and Moe, D. , editors, The cultural landscape–past, present and future, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 445–461.
20.
Bonny, A.P.1976: Recruitment of pollen to seston and sediment of some Lake District lakes . Journal of Ecology64, 859–887 .
21.
Bonny, A.P.1978: The effect of pollen recruitment processes on pollen distribution over the sediment surface of a small lake in Cumbria . Journal of Ecology66, 385–416 .
22.
Boyd, W.E. and Dickson, J.H.1987: A post-glacial pollen sequence from Loch a'Mhuilinn, North Arran: a record of vegetation history with special reference to the history of endemic Sorbus species . New Phytologist107, 221–244 .
23.
Bradshaw, R.H.W.1981: Quantitative reconstruction of local woodland vegetation using pollen analysis from a small hollow in Norfolk, England . New Phytologist69, 941–955 .
24.
Bradshaw, R.H.W.1988: Spatially-precise studies of forest dynamics. In Huntley, B. and Webb, T. III , editors, Vegetation history, Dordrecht: Kluwer , 725–751.
25.
Bradshaw, R.H.W.1994: Quaternary terrestrial sediments and spatial scale: the limits of interpretation. In Traverse, A. , editor, Sedimentation of organic particles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 239–252.
26.
Brayshay, B.A. and Edwards, K.J.1996: Late-glacial and Holocene vegetational history of South Uist and Barra. In Gilbertson, D. , Kent, M. and Grattan, J. , editors, The Outer Hebrides: the last 14,000 years, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press , 13–26.
27.
Brayshay, B.A. , Gilbertson, D.D. , Kent, M. , Edwards, K.J. , Wathern, P. and Weaver, R.E.2000: Surface pollen-vegetation relationships on the Atlantic seaboard: South Uist, Scotland . Journal of Biogeography27, 359–378 .
28.
Broström, A. , Gaillard, M.-J. , Ihse, N. and Odgaard, B.1998: Pollen-landscape relationships in modern analogues of ancient cultural landscapes in southern Sweden–a first step towards quantification of vegetation openness in the past . Vegetation History and Archaeobotany7, 189–201 .
29.
Brown, A. , Birks, H.J.B. and Thompson, D.B.A.1993a: A new biogeographical classification of the Scottish uplands. II. Vegetation-environment relationships . Journal of Ecology81, 231–251 .
30.
Brown, A. , Horsfield, D. and Thompson, D.B.A.1993b: A new biogeographical classification of the Scottish uplands. I. Descriptions of vegetation blocks and their spatial variation . Journal of Ecology81, 207–229 .
31.
Brown, T.1997: Clearances and clearings: deforestation in Mesolithic/ Neolithic Britain . Oxford Journal of Archaeology16, 133–146 .
32.
Bunting, M.J.2002: Detecting woodland remnants in cultural landscapes: modern pollen deposition around small woodlands in northwest Scotland . The Holocene12, 291–301 .
33.
Burgess, C.1985: Population, climate and upland settlement. In Stratt, D. and Burgess, C. , editors, Upland settlement in Britain: the second millennium bc and after, British Archaeological Reports, British Series 143, 195–230.
34.
Burgess, C.1989: Volcanoes, catastrophe and the global crisis of the late second millennium bc . Current Archaeology117, 325–329 .
35.
Calcote, R.1995: Pollen source area and pollen productivity: evidence from forest hollows . Journal of Ecology83, 591–602 .
36.
Carey, P.D. , Preston, C.D. , Hill, M.O. , Usher, M.B. and Wright, S.M.1995: An environmentally defined biogeographical zonation of Scotland designed to reflect species distribution . Journal of Ecology83, 833–845 .
37.
Caulfield, S.1978: Neolithic fields: the Irish evidence. In Bowen, H.C. and Fowler, P.J. , editors, Early land allotment in the British Isles: a survey of recent work, British Archaeological Reports, British Series 48, 137–143.
38.
Charman, D.J.1992: Blanket mire formation at the Cross Lochs, northern Scotland . Boreas21, 53–72 .
39.
Charman, D.J.1994: Late-glacial and Holocene vegetation history of the Flow Country, northern Scotland . New Phytologist127, 155–168 .
40.
Coles, G. and Mills, C.M.1998: Clinging on for grim life: an introduction to marginality as an archaeological issue. In Mills, C.M. and Coles, G. , editors, Life on the edge: human settlement and marginality, Oxford: Oxbow Monograph 100, vii-xii.
41.
Coppock, J.T.1976: An agricultural atlas of Scotland. Edinburgh: John Donald .
42.
Cowley, D.C.1998: Identifying marginality in the first and second millennia bc in the Strath of Kildonan, Sutherland. In Mills, C.M. and Coles, G. , editors, Life on the edge: human settlement and marginality, Oxford: Oxbow Monograph 100, 165–171.
43.
Davies, A.L. 1999: Fine spatial resolution Holocene vegetation and land-use history in West Glen Affric and Kintail, northern Scotland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Stirling.
44.
Dodgshon, R.A.1998: From chiefs to landlords: social and economic change in the Western Highlands and Islands, c. 1493–1820. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press .
45.
Dunwiddie, P.W.1987: Macrofossil and pollen representation of coniferous trees in modern sediments from Washington . Ecology68, 1–11 .
46.
Edwards, K.J.1982: Man, space and the woodland edge–speculations on the detection and interpretation of human impact in pollen profiles. In Bell, M. and Limbrey, S. , editors, Archaeological aspects of woodland ecology, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 146, 5–22.
47.
Edwards, K.J.1989: The cereal pollen record and early agriculture. In Milles, A. , Williams, D. and Gardner, N. , editors, The beginnings of agriculture, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports , International Series 496, 113–135.
48.
Edwards, K.J. and Whittington, G.1998: Landscape and environment in prehistoric West Mainland, Shetland . Landscape History20, 5–17 .
49.
Fenton, A.1999: Scottish country life. East Lothian: Tuckwell Press .
50.
Fossitt, J.A. 1990: Holocene vegetation history of the Western Isles, Scotland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
51.
Fossitt, J.A.1994: Modern pollen rain in the northwest of the British Isles . The Holocene4, 465–476 .
52.
Fossitt, J.A.1996: Late Quaternary vegetation history of the Western Isles of Scotland . New Phytologist132, 171–196 .
53.
Gaillard, M.-J. , Birks, H.J.B. , Emanuelsson, U. and Berglund, B.E.1992: Modern pollen/land-use relationships as an aid in the reconstruction of past land-uses and cultural landscapes: an example from south Sweden . Vegetation History and Archaeobotany1, 3–17 .
54.
Gaillard, M.J. , Birks, H.J.B. , Ihse, M. and Runborg, S.1998: Pollen/landscape calibrations based on modern pollen assemblages from surface-sediment samples and landscape mapping–a pilot study in South Sweden. In Gaillard, M.J. , Berglund, B.E. , Frenzel, B. and Huckriede, U. , editors, Quantification of land surfaces cleared of forests during the Holocene–modern pollen/vegetation/landscape relationships as an aid to the interpretation of fossil pollen data, Paläoklimaforschung/Palaeoclimate Research 27, Stuttgart: Fischer , 31–52.
55.
Gearey, B. and Gilbertson, D.1997: Pollen taphonomy of trees in a windy climate: Northbay Plantation, Barra, Outer Hebrides . Scottish Geographical Magazine113, 113–120 .
56.
Grime, J.P. , Hodgson, J.G. and Hunt, R.1988: Comparative plant ecology: a functional approach to common British species. London: Unwin Hyman .
57.
Grimm, E.C.1987: CONISS: a FORTRAN 77 program for stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of squares . Computers and Geosciences13, 13–35 .
58.
Grimm, E.C.1991: TILIA and TILIA-GRAPH. Springfield: Illinois State Museum .
59.
Hall, V.A.1989: A study of the modern pollen rain from a reconstructed 19th century farm . Irish Naturalists Journal23, 82–92 .
60.
Halstead, P.2000: Land use in postglacial Greece: cultural causes and environmental effects. In Halstead, P. and Frederick, C. , editors, Landscape and land use in postglacial Greece, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press , 110–128.
61.
Hansen, B.C.S.1995: Conifer stomate analysis as a paleoecological tool: an example from the Hudson Bay lowlands . Canadian Journal of Botany73, 244–252 .
62.
Harkness, D.D. and Walker, M.J.C.1991: The Devensian Lateglacial carbon isotope record from Llandilid, South Wales. In Lowe, J.J. , editor, Radiocarbon dating: recent applications and future potential, Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association , Quaternary Proceedings 1, 35–43.
63.
Henderson, D.J. and Hudson, G.1989: Soil capability for forestry in western Scotland. Aberdeen: Macaulay Institute for Soil Research .
64.
Hjelle, K.L.1997: Relationships between pollen and plants in human-influenced vegetation types using presence-absence data in western Norway . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology99, 1–16 .
65.
Hjelle, K.L.1999: Modern pollen assemblages from mown and grazed vegetation types in western Norway . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology107, 55–81 .
66.
Jackson, S.T.1990: Pollen source area and representation in small lakes of the northeastern United States . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology63, 53–76 .
67.
Jackson, S.T.1994: Pollen and spores in Quaternary lake sediments as sensors of vegetation composition: theoretical models and empirical evidence. In Traverse, A. , editor, Sedimentation of organic particles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 253–286.
68.
Jackson, S.T. and Kearsley, J.B.1998: Quantitative representation of local forest composition in forest-floor assemblages . Journal of Ecology86, 474–490 .
69.
Jackson, S.T. and Wong, A.1994: Using forest patchiness to determine pollen source areas of closed-canopy pollen assemblages . Journal of Ecology82, 89–99 .
70.
Jacobson, G.L. and Bradshaw, R.H.W.1981: The selection of sites for paleovegetational studies . Quaternary Research16, 80–96 .
71.
Janssen, C.R.1966: Recent pollen spectra from the deciduous and coniferous-deciduous forests of northeastern Minnestota: a study in pollen dispersal . Ecology47, 804–825 .
72.
Janssen, C.R.1973: Local and regional pollen deposition. In Birks, H.J.B. and West, R.G. , editors, Quaternary Plant Ecology. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications , 31–42.
73.
Jowsey, P.C.1966: An improved peat sampler . New Phytologist65, 245–248 .
74.
Keith-Lucas, M.1986: Vegetation development and human impact. In Whittle, A. , Keith-Lucas, M. , Milles, A. , Noddle, B. , Rees, S. and Romans, J.C.C. , Scord of Brouster: an early agricultural settlement on Shetland, Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph 9, 92–118.
75.
Kerslake, P.D. 1982: Vegetational history of wooded islands in Scottish lochs. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
76.
Kvamme, M.1988: Pollen analytical studies of mountain summer-farming in western Norway. In Birks, H.H. , Birks, H.J.B. , Kaland, P.R. and Moe, D. , editors, The cultural landscape–past, present and future, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 249–367.
77.
Long, D.J. , Chambers, F.M. and Barnatt, J.1998: The palaeoenvironment and the vegetation history of a later prehistoric field system at Stoke Flat on the Gritstone Uplands of the Peak District . Journal of Archaeological Science25, 505–519 .
78.
McCullagh, R.P.J. and Tipping, R. , editors 1998: The Lairg Project 1988–1996: the evolution of an archaeological landscape in northern Scotland. Edinburgh: STAR Monograph 3 .
79.
Molloy, K. and O'Connell, M.1995: Palaeoecological investigations towards the reconstruction of environment and land-use changes during prehistory at Céide Fields, western Ireland . Probleme der Küstenforschung im südlichen Nordseegebiet23, 187–225 .
80.
Moore, P.D. , Webb, J.A. and Collinson, M.E.1991: Pollen analysis (second edition). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications .
81.
O'Connell, M.1987: Early cereal-type pollen records from Connemara, western Ireland and their possible significance . Pollen et Spores29, 207–224 .
82.
O'sullivan, P.E.1973: Pollen analysis of Mor humus layers from a native Scots pine ecosystem, interpreted with surface samples . Oikos, 24, 259–272 .
83.
O'sullivan, P.E.1977: Vegetation history and the native pinewoods. In Bunce, R.G.H. and Jeffers, J.N.R. , editors, Native pinewoods of Scotland, Cambridge: Institute for Terrestrial Ecology , 60–69.
84.
Parry, M.L.1978: Climate change, agriculture and settlement. Folke-stone: Dawson .
85.
Parry, M.L.1981: Climatic change and the agricultural frontier: a research strategy. In Wigley, T.M.L. , Ingram, M.J. and Farmer, G. , editors, Climate and history, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 319–336.
86.
Parry, M.L and Carter, T.R.1985: The effect of climatic variations on agricultural risk . Climatic Change7, 95–110 .
87.
Peck, R.M.1973: Pollen budget studies in a small Yorkshire catchment. In Birks, H.J.B. and West, R.G. , editors, Quaternary plant ecology, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications , 43–60.
88.
Pennington, W.1979: The origin of pollen in lake sediments: an enclosed lake compared with one receiving inflow streams . New Phytologist83, 189–213 .
89.
Pennington, W. , Haworth, E.Y. , Bonny, A.P. and Lishman, J.P.1972: Lake sediments in northern Scotland . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of LondonB264, 191–294 .
90.
Peterken, G.F.1996: Natural woodland: ecology and conservation in northern temperate regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
91.
Petts, G.E.1998: Floodplain rivers and their restoration: a European perspective. In Bailey, R.G. , José, P.V. and Sharwood, B.R. , editors, United Kingdom floodplains, Otley: Westbury Academic and Scientific Publishing , 29–41.
92.
Prentice, I.C.1985: Pollen representation, source area, and basin size: toward a unified theory of pollen analysis . Quaternary Research23, 76–86 .
93.
Randall, R.E. , Andrew, R. and West, R.G.1986: Pollen catchment in relation to local vegetation: Ceann Ear, Monach Isles N.N.R., Outer Hebrides . New Phytologist104, 271–310 .
94.
Richards, E.2000: The Highland clearances: people, landlords and rural turmoil. Edinburgh: Birlinn .
95.
Ritchie, A. , Ritchie, G. , Whittington, G. and Soulsby, J.1974: A prehistoric field-boundary from the Black Crofts, North Connel, Argyll . Glasgow Archaeological Journal3, 66–70 .
96.
Robinson, D.1987: Investigations into the Aukhorn peat mounds, Keiss, Caithness: pollen, plant macrofossil and charcoal analyses . New Phytologist106, 185–200 .
97.
Rodwell, J.S. , editor 1992: British plant communities. Volume 3. Grasslands and montane communities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
98.
Rose, N.L. , Harlock, S. , Appleby, P.G. and Battarbee, R.W.1995: Dating of recent lake sediments in the United Kingdom and Ireland using spheroidal carbonaceous particle (SCP) concentration profiles . The Holocene5, 328–355 .
99.
Roy, M.1997: The Highlands and Islands of Scotland. In Wheeler, D. and Mayes, J. , editors, Regional climates of the British Isles, London: Routledge , 228–253.
100.
Sagar, G.R. and Harper, J.L.1964: Biological flora of the British Isles . Plantago major L., P. media L. and P. lanceolata L. Journal of Ecology52, 189–221 .
101.
Smith, A.G.1970: The influence of Mesolithic and Neolithic man on British vegetation. In Walker, D. and West, R.G. , editors, Studies in the vegetational history of the British Isles: essays in honour of Harry Godwin, London: Cambridge University Press , 81–96.
102.
Smith, J.S.1993: Changing deer numbers in the Scottish Highlands since 1789. In Smout, T.C. , editor, Scotland since prehistory: natural change and human impact, Aberdeen: Scottish Cultural Press , 89–97.
103.
Smith, M.A. 1996: The role of vegetation dynamics and human activity in landscape changes through the Holocene in the Lairg area, Sutherland, Scotland. Unpublished PhD thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London.
104.
Smith, M.A.1998: Holocene regional vegetation history of the Lairg area. In McCullagh, R.P.J. and Tipping, R. , editors, The Lairg Project 1988–1996: the evolution of an archaeological landscape in northern Scotland, Edinburgh: STAR Monograph 3, 177–199.
105.
Smith, M.A.2000: Palynological taphonomy in understanding vegetation history and human impact in the Lairg area, Sutherland. In Huntley, J.P. and Stallibrass, S. , editors, Taphonomy and interpretation, Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology 14, Oxford: Oxbow Books , 13–21.
106.
Soil Survey of Scotland1982: Western Scotland, 1:250000. Sheet 4. Aberdeen: Macaulay Institute for Soil Research .
107.
Stace, C.1997: New flora of the British Isles (second edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
108.
Steven, H.M. and Carlisle, A.1959: The native pinewoods of Scotland. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd .
109.
Stockmarr, J.1971: Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis . Pollen et Spores13, 615–621 .
110.
Stuiver, M. and Reimer, P.J.1993: Extended 14C base and revised CALIB 3.0.3 14C age calibration program . Radiocarbon35, 215–230 .
111.
Sugita, S.1994: Pollen representation of vegetation in Quaternary sediments: theory and method in patchy vegetation . Journal of Ecology82, 881–897 .
112.
Sugita, S.1998: Modelling pollen representation of vegetation. In Gaillard, M.J. , Berglund, B.E. , Frenzel, B. and Huckriede, U. , editors, Quantification of land surface cleared of forests during the Holocene–modern pollen/vegetation/landscape relationships as an aid to the interpretation of fossil pollen data, Paläoklimaforschung/Palaeoclimate Research 27, Stuttgart: Fischer , 1–16.
113.
Sugita, S. , Gaillard, M.-J. and Broström, A.1999: Landscape openness and pollen records: a simulation approach . The Holocene9, 409–421 .
114.
Sugita, S. , MacDonald, G.M. and Larsen, C.P.S.1997: Reconstruction of fire disturbance and forest succession from fossil pollen in lake sediments: potential and limitations. In Clark, J.S. , Cachier, H. , Goldammer, J.G. and Stocks, B.J. , editors, Sediment records of biomass burning and global change, Berlin: Springer-Verlag , 387–412.
115.
Tate, C.J. 1995: Late Quaternary glaciation and environmental change in southern Ross-shire, Scotland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of St Andrews.
116.
Tauber, H.1965: Differential pollen dispersion and the interpretation of pollen diagrams . Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse, Raekke 2, 89, 1–69 .
117.
Tauber, H.1977: Investigations of aerial pollen transport in a forested area . Dansk Botanisk Arkiv32, 1–121 .
118.
Tipping, R.1994: The form and fate of Scotland's woodlands . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland124, 1–54 .
119.
Tipping, R.1997: Medieval woodland history from the Scottish Southern Uplands: fine spatial-scale pollen data from a small woodland hollow. In Smout, T.C. , editor, Scottish woodland history, Aberdeen: Scottish Cultural Press , 52–75.
120.
Tipping, R.1998: Cereal cultivation on the Anglo-Scottish Border during the‘Little Ice Age’. In Mills, C.M. and Coles, G. , editors, Life on the edge: human settlement and marginality, Oxford: Oxbow Monographs 100, 1–11.
121.
Tipping, R.2000: Palaeoecological approaches to historical problems: a comparison of sheep-grazing intensities in the Cheviot Hills in the medieval and later periods. In Atkinson, J.A. , Banks, I. and MacGregor, G. , editors, Townships to farmsteads: rural settlement studies in Scotland, England and Wales, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports , British Series 293, 130–143.
122.
Trautmann, W.1953: Zur Unterscheidung fossiler Spaltoffnungen der mitteleuropaischen Coniferen . Flora140, 523–533 .
123.
Troels-Smith, J.1955: Karakterising af líse jordarter. Characterization of unconsolidated sediments . Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse Series IV3, 39–73 .
124.
Usher, M.B. and Balharry, D.1996: Biogeographical zonation of Scotland. Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage .
Whittington, G.1978: A sub-peat dyke at Shurton Hill, Mainland, Shetland . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland109, 30–35 .
127.
Whittington, G. and Edwards, K.J.1994: Palynology as a predictive tool in archaeology . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland124, 55–65 .
128.
Whittle, A. , Keith-Lucas, M. , Milles, A. , Noddle, B. , Rees, S. and Romans, J.C.C.1986: Scord of Brouster: an early agricultural settlement on Shetland. Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph 9 .
129.
Wik, M. and Natkanski, J.1990: British and Scandinavian lake sediment records of carbonaceous particles from fossil-fuel combustion . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of LondonB327, 319–323 .
130.
Willis, K.J. and Bennett, K.D.1994: The Neolithic transition–fact or fiction? Palaeoecological evidence from the Balkans . The Holocene4, 326–330 .
131.
Wordsworth, J. and Harden, J.1997: Kintail and West Affric Archaeological Survey. Archaeological Services, Inverness-shire, Report for the National Trust for Scotland.
132.
Young, R. and Simmonds, T.1995: Marginality and the nature of later prehistoric upland settlement in the north of England . Landscape History17, 5–16 .
