The tissue engineering of articular cartilage: cells,scaffolds and stimulating factors

Abstract

Damage or loss of articular cartilage as a consequence of congenital anomaly, degenerative joint disease or injury leads to progressive debilitation, which has a negative impact on the quality of life of affected individuals in all age groups. Classical surgical techniques for hyaline cartilage reparation are frequently insufficient and in many cases it is not possible to obtain the expected results. For this reason, researchers and surgeons are forced to find a method to induce complete cartilage repair. Recently, the advent of tissue engineering has provided alternative possibilities for the treatment of these patients by application of cell-based therapy (e.g. chondrocytes and adult stem cells) combined with synthetic substitutes of the extracellular matrix and bioactive factors to prepare functional replacement of hyaline cartilage. This communication is aimed at a brief review of the current status of cartilage tissue engineering and recent advances in the field.

Keywords

tissue engineering hyaline cartilage cell therapy biomaterials chondrogenic stimuli

Introduction

Damage of articular cartilage due to congenital anomalies, degenerative joint diseases and traumatic injuries is painful, debilitating and a costly medical problem which affects individuals in all age groups. Mature hyaline cartilage has a very low self-repair potential due to its intrinsic properties.¹ Hyaline cartilage is an avascular and aneural tissue with low cell density and rich extracellular matrix (ECM) (Figure 1). Another limiting factor is the low mitotic potential of chondrocytes.² Small defects are healed by the migration of chondrocytes, while large ones are healed by formation of biomechanically insufficient fibrillar cartilage.³ However, in many cases these processes are inadequate and osteoarthritis develops. Recent techniques of articular cartilage defect repair involve autologous osteochondral cylinder, periosteum or perichondrium transplantation, fresh osteochondral allograft implantation and autologous chondrocyte implantation under periosteal flap.⁴ Many of these strategies appear to be promising, but they involve invasive tissue collection and suffer from size restrictions, low mitotic potential and the senescence of chondrocytes expanded under in vitro conditions.⁵ Moreover, cultured chondrocytes undergo a dedifferentiation process, gradually changing their morphology to a fibroblast-like shape, and the production of collagen type II is replaced by the production of collagen type I typical for fibrillar cartilage.⁶ For this reason, researchers and surgeons are forced to find a method to induce complete cartilage repair.

Figure 1

Hyaline cartilage is avascular and aneural compact tissue with abundant extracellular matrix (1) with collagenous microfibrils. Chondrocytes are present in lacunas as isogenous groups (2). The surface of hyaline cartilage is surrounded by perichondrium (3). (A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)

Recently, tissue engineering strategies combining cell therapy (e.g. chondrocytes and adult stem cells [ASCs]) with proper biomaterials of natural or synthetic origin as scaffolds as well as various growth and differentiation stimuli (Figure 2) represent a promising new approach for the treatment of articular cartilage defects.⁷ The main purpose of the present communication is to review the current status and advances of the cartilage tissue engineering with respect to their potential application in orthopedic surgery.

Figure 2

Basic concept of tissue engineering. Fabrication of artificial tissues suitable for clinical application starts with the procurement of tissue sample necessary for cell isolation and further expansion in vitro to obtain sufficient quantity of cells. Obtained cells are usually cultured within various types of scaffolds in bioreactors with addition of specific growth factors. Prepared artificial tissues have to be carefully tested for pathological events and potential microbiological contamination before application in human medicine

Sources of cells

Chondrocytes

The use of chondrocytes is a logical choice because they are present in the mature hyaline articular cartilage. Chondrocytes are responsible for the production of the basic ECM constituents – collagen type II and proteoglycans. Moreover, they play an important role in maintenance and remodeling of the cartilage matrix. Chondrocytes are easy to obtain by enzymatic digestion of cartilage and culture under proper in vitro conditions. The first human trial of cultured articular chondrocytes for the treatment of cartilage defects was reported by Brittberg et al.⁸ They injected in vitro expanded autologous chondrocytes into the lesion covered by periosteal flap in 23 people with deep cartilage defects in the knee. The clinical results were more beneficial for defects on the femoral condyle than on the patella. Histological analysis of biopsies showed hyaline-like and fibrous tissue comprising the reparative tissue of asymptomatic patients. However, this technique had some disadvantages, such as reacquisition of phenotype when cultured in vitro and non-uniform distribution of cells as a result of gravitational force.^9,10

The main limitation of chondrocyte usage is their dedifferentiation process when cultured in vitro. Several attempts have been made to overcome this problem. It was shown that supplementation of culture media by growth factors, including transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) significantly retard this process, but they are not able to completely halt this cellular event.¹¹ Cultivation of chondrocytes in three-dimensional culture systems, such as agarose gel, alginate beads or fibrin glue, may also preserve the chondrocyte phenotype.¹² To date, numerous scaffolds have been used in conjunction with maintenance of chondrocyte phenotype, including collagen, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, etc. It was shown that these natural biopolymers may maintain the expression of aggrecan and collagen type II as well as positively influencing the production of sulfated glycosaminoglycans.^13,14 Similar effects may be achieved by cultivation of chondrocytes at high densities using micromass cultures without adding growth factors, which make them more suitable for clinical application. Obtained chondrocyte-based microtissue has a characteristic extracellular space comparable to the natural matrix of hyaline cartilage.¹⁵

Stem cells

Chondrocyte-based cell therapy represents a good approach for cartilage tissue engineering. However, it is difficult to obtain sufficient amounts of autologous chondrocytes and keep their original phenotype under in vitro conditions.¹⁶ ASCs are generally characterized as undifferentiated cells with self-renewal capacity and plasticity (Figure 3). They occur in the tissues of all multicellular organisms throughout life. These cells are involved in the processes of embryogenesis and during adulthood they play a pivotal role in maintaining homeostasis and the integrity of organisms.¹⁷ Over the past few years, ASCs have been derived from various types of tissues, including bone marrow, adipose tissue, skin, hair follicle, periosteum, dental pulp, etc.¹⁸ ASCs are adherent and have a fibroblast-like morphology as well, being able to produce colony forming units-fibroblast when cultured in vitro.¹⁹ These cells are heterogeneous and express a variety of surface markers including CD29, CD44, CD56, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD166, CD271, STRO-1 and MSCA-1. Moreover, they are usually negative for hematopoietic markers CD34, CD45 and for human leukocyte antigen class II.^20–22

Figure 3

Schematic overview of stem cell plasticity. Stem cells have the ability to differentiate into other cell types under specific physiological (in vivo) or laboratory conditions (in vitro). Therefore, they represent a unique tool for regenerative medicine. ECM, extracellular matrix. (A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)

In a pioneer study, Johnstone et al.²³ reported that stem cells derived from bone marrow cultured as an aggregate with TGF-β1 undergo chondrogenic differentiation. Their results demonstrated over-expression of collagen type II and X typical for hyaline cartilage in vivo, while the expression of collagen type I was significantly decreased. More recently, Bosnakovski et al.²⁴ proved chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived stem cells in a pellet culture system, without supplementation of growth factors.

Other sources of ASCs have also been studied with respect to cartilage tissue engineering. It has been reported that adipose tissue-derived stem cells obtained from lipoaspirates can undergo chondrogenic differentiation when cultured at a high density in medium supplemented by TGF-β, ascorbate and dexamethasone. These cells produced collagen type II and sulfated glycosaminoglycans.²⁵ Better results may be achieved when adipose-derived stem cells are cultured in the presence of FGF-2 and bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP-6). It was shown that FGF-2 increases cell proliferation and enhances chondrogenesis in vitro, while addition of BMP-6 significantly up-regulates the expression of aggrecan and collagen type II.^26,27 The potential for utilization of these cells is very attractive because subcutaneous fat is abundant in the human body and the liposuction procedure is minimally invasive for the patient. On the other hand, adipose-derived stem cells have lower chondrogenic potential than stem cells isolated from bone marrow.²⁸

More recently, besides bone marrow and adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, synovial membranes and periosteum are other sources of ASCs being explored in the context of articular cartilage repair.^29–31 These stem cells were cultured predominantly in aggregates or micromass cultures with or without growth factors. In every case, chondrogenic differentiation was proved. Similar results were obtained when the stem cells were cultured within the structure of various ECM substitutes, including collagen, chitosan, poly-lactic acid, etc.³² Obtained results indicate that ASCs derived from various tissues seem to be a promising tool for cartilage tissue engineering.

Scaffolding materials

Scaffolds belong to key components for tissue engineering. They are produced from natural or synthetic biomaterials (Table 1) and may be in the form of hydrogels, sponges, fibrous meshes and nanofibers. Materials for scaffolding have to be non-toxic, sterile, biodegradable and biocompatible.⁷ The structure of the surface, pore size, porosity and structural strength are important characteristics, which influence their final utilization.^33,34 These scaffolds not only have a mechanical function, but also support cell attachment, migration, proliferation and differentiation for expression of desirable phenotypes.³⁵ Biodegradable polymers seem to be the most appropriate materials for scaffolding, because their interactions with cultured cells lead to incremental biological degradation. After their application, there is no need to undergo other surgery to remove foreign material from the patient's body.⁷

Table 1

Types of biomaterials used in cartilage tissue engineering

Natural polymers	Synthetic polymers
Agarose	Poly (α-hydroxy esters)
Alginate	Poly (ethylene glycol/oxide)
Cellulose	Poly (NiPAAm)
Collagen	Poly (propylene fumarate)
Chitosan	Poly (urethane)
Chondroitin sulfate	Poly (vinyl alcohol)
Fibrin glue
Gelatin
Hyaluronic acid
Silk fibroin

There are plenty of polymers, but only some of them are suitable for cartilage tissue engineering. Collagen is a physiological component of various tissues, including cartilage, and is an intensively studied natural polymer with respect to tissue engineering.¹⁴ The chemical, mechanical and biological properties of collagen offer wide possibilities to control its biodegradation. The problem of collagen antigenicity was solved by enzymatic removal of telopeptides from its molecule or by chemical cross-linking, so it is safe for clinical utilization.^36,37 It was found that chondrocytes cultured within collagen gels keep their phenotype and glycosaminoglycan production for almost six weeks in culture.³⁸ More recently, it was shown that collagen-based gel has a chondroinductive effect on ASCs derived from bone marrow.³⁹ Not only gels, but also collagen matrices and membranes stimulate cells to produce new collagen and preserve chondrocyte phenotype.⁴⁰

Hyaluronan occurs at relatively high concentration in the ECM of articular cartilage. It is a biocompatible and biodegradable biopolymer, so it would be an ideal scaffolding material. However, in order to achieve proper characteristics, hyaluronan is chemically adjusted by cross-linking.⁴¹ Grigolo et al.⁴² demonstrated that chondrocytes cultured on a hyaluronan scaffold (HYAFF 11) express collagen type II and aggrecan and downregulate the production of collagen type I. More recently, it was also shown that hyaluronan creates an environment in which chondrocytes down-regulate the expression of catabolic factors and apoptosis. These results demonstrated a potential ability of hyaluronan to prevent cartilage against damage and may have benefit for the treatment of early osteoarthritic lesions.⁴³ Jakobsen et al.⁴⁴ cultured stem cells derived from bone marrow and adipose tissue in hyaluronan scaffolds. Their results showed that bone marrow-derived stem cells expressed 600-fold higher levels of collagen type II than chondrocytes after three weeks in the scaffold. Expression of collagen type II in adipose tissue-derived stem cells was lesser but similar to chondrocytes.

Another attractive polymer for cartilage tissue regeneration is fibrin glue. It is a natural polymer produced from the polymerization of fibrinogen with thrombin.⁴⁵ Scotti et al.⁴⁶ prepared an artificial substitute of cartilage by cultivation of chondrocytes within fibrin glue. Their results suggest that chondrocytes survived in the fibrin glue gel and enhanced their synthetic activity – DNA content remained stable, while all indices of cartilage matrix production increased. A similar effect was observed in experiments with ASCs.⁴⁷

Other natural polymers are also used in the field of cartilage engineering, including alginate, agarose, chitosan, chondroitin sulfate, gelatine and silk fibroin. It was demonstrated that all of them in some extent potentiate the production of collagen type II and sulfated glycosaminoglycans by both chondrocytes and stem cells.⁴⁸

Besides the above-mentioned natural biopolymers, a variety of synthetic polymers may be utilized with respect to cartilage defect healing. They can be modified in many ways such as mechanical properties, degradation rate and chemical modification. Moreover, they can be manufactured in unlimited scale.⁴⁹ The most widely used are polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA) (and their co-polymer) and polyethylene glycol (PEG).

PLA is a biodegradable polymer that can be produced from lactic acid, which can be fermented from crops. PGA is a biodegradable, thermoplastic polymer and the simplest linear, aliphatic polyester. It can be prepared starting from glycolic acid by means of polycondensation or ring-opening polymerization. In tissue engineering these two polymers are used for the preparation of scaffold alone, but most commonly they are used as a co-polymer. It was demonstrated that PLA and PGA increased chondrocyte proliferation and glycosaminoglycans.⁵⁰ More recently, Lee et al.⁵¹ demonstrated that a co-polymer consisting of PLA and PGA is a better option for inducing cartilage tissue formation than both polymers individually. Histological and immunohistochemical results showed that chondrocytes retained their morphological phenotype to a greater extent than those seeded into PLA. Similar results were obtained in experiments with ASCs.^52,53

PEG is a commonly used polymer for biomaterial applications due to its ability to resist protein absorption. Scaffolds made from PEG can be polymerized using either chemical or photoinitiators. These scaffolds can also be chemically modified to contain bioactive molecules, including peptides and heparin.⁵⁴ Hwang et al.⁵⁵ colonized PEG with primary chondrocytes. Their results showed that PEG supported attachment, viability, proliferation and biosynthetic activity of seeded chondrocytes. Moreover, it was also demonstrated that hydrogels prepared from modified PEG mimic the natural environment, which promoted chondrogenesis of stem cells derived from the bone marrow and enhanced the secretion of cartilage-specific ECM.⁵⁶

Stimulating factors

Growth factors

Chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells should be induced by various intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Growth factors play the most important role in this process. They represent a group of biologically active polypeptides produced by the body, which can stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation. In the hyaline cartilage, growth factors regulate homeostasis and integrity, as well as development (Table 2).

Table 2

List of selected growth factors and their effect on stem cells

Growth factor	Effect on MSCs
TGF-β1	Increases proliferation and cartilaginous ECM production, downregulates collagen type I gene expression
TGF-β3	Increases cartilaginous ECM production
BMP-2	Increases proliferation and cartilaginous ECM production, downregulates collagen type I gene expression
BMP-4	Accelerates the progression of cartilage differentiation to maturation
BMP-7	Inhibits cell proliferation, induces chondrogenic differentiation, additive effect on chondrogenesis with TGF-β1 and IGF-1
GDF-5	Increases cartilaginous ECM production
IGF-1	Increases proliferation and cartilaginous ECM production, additive effect on chondrogenesis with TGF-β1 and BMP-7
FGF-2	Increases proliferation, increases proteoglycan production
FGF-18	Inhibits cell proliferation, induces chondrogenic differentiation

ECM, extracellular matrix; TGF, transforming growth factor; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; GDF, growth differentiation factor; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor

Growth factors from the TGF-β superfamily probably belong to the most investigated biologically active substances within the field of cartilage tissue engineering. They play a pivotal role in cell proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation. Moreover, they are involved in regulation of the cell cycle and immune system.⁵⁷ TGF-β1 stimulates synthetic activity of chondrocytes, keeps their phenotype and acts against catabolic activity of inflammatory mediator interleukin 1 in vivo.⁵⁸ Experimental studies performed in vitro showed enhanced proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells. Moreover, TGF-β1 treatment of stem cells leads to down-regulation of collagen type I gene expression and to increased expression of collagen type II and aggrecan, typical for hyaline cartilage formation.²⁸ TGF-β3 also induces cartilaginous ECM production by chondrocytes. Thorpe et al.⁵⁹ demonstrated that TGF-β3 treatment of stem cells led to enhanced synthesis of sulfated glycosaminoglycans.

BMPs belong to the TGF-β superfamily. They play crucial roles in the processes of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis in vivo.⁶⁰ BMP-2 treatment leads to an increase in cartilaginous ECM production and to a decrease in collagen type I gene expression. Moreover, BMP-2-treated stem cells produce more robust aggregates when compared with other ones and so it seems to be the most effective chondrogenic factor from the TGF-β superfamily.⁶¹ BMP-4 is a critical signaling molecule involved in the processes of embryogenesis and exhibits osteogenic and chondrogenic potential in vivo. BMP-4 induces chondrogenic differentiation of ASCs toward a chondroprogenitor lineage and facilitates differentiation into mature chondrocytes. BMP-4 also enhances the production of cartilaginous matrix by stimulating the synthesis of collagen type II and aggrecan and suppresses expression of collagen type I and X.⁶² BMP-7 is synthesized by chondrocytes and play an important role in articular cartilage regeneration. It has significant anabolic activity by which BMP-7 protects cartilage against damage.⁶³

IGF-1 is a hormone similar to insulin. It plays an essential role in the growth of the organism and has a significant anabolic effect.⁶⁴ In the articular cartilage, IGF-1 is the main anabolic growth factor, which is necessary for cartilage homeostasis, proteoglycan synthesis and breakdown by the chondrocytes.⁶⁵ The effect of IGF-1 on chondrogenic differentiation of ASCs has been extensively investigated. It was demonstrated that IGF-1 modulates mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) chondrogenesis by stimulating proliferation, regulating cell apoptosis and inducing expression of the chondrocyte phenotype. This effect is independent from TGF-β signaling.⁶⁶

The FGFs are heparin-binding polypeptides which are employed in various cellular events, such as proliferation, differentiation and motility. They also play a very important role during embryogenesis, angiogenesis and wound healing. FGF-2 occurs within the structure of the ECM of hyaline cartilage. This factor promotes the proliferation of chondrocytes in vivo. It was also shown that FGF-2 (with FGF-4 and FGF-8) plays a role in the process of anabolic pathway activation which leads to a decrease in aggrecanase effect after loading of cartilage. It protects cartilage against damage and osteoarthritis development.⁶⁷ Several studies were performed to assess the FGF-2 effect on ASC proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation. It was demonstrated that FGF-2 treatment of MSCs leads to acceleration of their proliferation and to enhancing of proteoglycan production. Furthermore, cultivation of ASCs in pellets with medium containing FGF-2 increases their chondrogenic potential. More recently, Park and Na,⁶⁸ in their work, confirmed increased production of glycosaminoglycans and collagen type II, which are typical for hyaline cartilage, in ASC-hydrogel constructs treated by FGF-2. However, fewer attempts were made to evaluate the effect of FGF-18, which is involved in a variety of biological processes, including embryonic development, cell growth, morphogenesis, tissue repair, tumor growth and invasion in vivo. It was also shown that intra-articular administration of FGF-18 led to a decrease in articular damage in rats with developed osteoarthritis.⁶⁹ Yamaoka et al. ⁷⁰ demonstrated its role in maintenance of chondrocyte properties, even though its expression was rather high in dedifferentiated chondrocytes. Moreover, results obtained from experiments with ASCs indicate that FGF-18 is a selective ligand for FGF receptor 3 which suppressed proliferation and promoted their differentiation and production of cartilage matrix.⁷¹ However, further investigations must be conducted to clarify its potential for cartilage tissue engineering.

Hydrostatic pressure

Physiologically, articular cartilage exists in the microenvironment of reduced oxygen and irregular hydrostatic pressure. Imitation of these conditions may provide a way to improve chondrogenic differentiation in vitro. Low oxygen tension (5%) has potentiated cell proliferation and collagen type II expression, as well as increased cartilage-specific biosynthesis of chondrocytes.⁷² Hydrostatic pressure applied within physiological levels has a positive effect on production of cartilage matrix. Chondrocytes loaded at 10 MPa and 1 Hz for 4 h/d, 5 d/week, for up to eight weeks showed an increase in collagen production.⁷³ The benefits of hydrostatic loading were also noted in experiments with stem cells, where 0.1 MPa of loading increased Sox 9 and aggrecan expression and 10 MPa of loading significantly increased the expression of collagen type II.⁷⁴

Bioreactors

The ability of a monolayer culture system to promote generation of highly differentiated structures is limited because cells are expanded on substrate, which is inappropriate and the metabolic condition is fluctuated in vitro.⁷⁵ To solve this problem, bioreactors that are able to imitate conditions in vivo have been constructed.

Spinner flasks are the simplest bioreactors, in which chondrocytes or ASCs are seeded on the scaffold fixed to the needles hanging from the stopper of the flask. The culture medium is added and permanently mixed. It has been shown that neocartilage prepared from chondrocytes in spinner flasks is larger and contains more cells and more robust cartilage matrix, compared with those grown in Petri dishes.⁷⁶ Wang et al.⁷⁷ cultured bone marrow-derived stem cells on the gelatin–hyaluronan scaffold in a spinner flask. After three weeks, they showed significant increasing of collagen type II, aggrecan and decorin expression.

Another simple design that can be utilized in cartilage tissue engineering is the perfusion culture system, which provides a constant flow of culture medium with differentiation factors through the chamber with scaffold and cells. The experiments with chondrocytes cultured at low density within alginate scaffold demonstrated cartilage ECM formation and a typical phenotype of chondrocytes after four weeks.⁷⁸ Enhancement of cell proliferation and collagen type II and glycosaminoglycan content were also recorded in artificial cartilage prepared by cultivation of ASCs on the various scaffolds using the perfusion culture system.⁷⁹

In addition to the above bioreactors, a number of other systems were considered for application in cartilage engineering, including a parallel-plate bioreactor, a rotating wall bioreactor, a concentric cylinder bioreactor and a wavy-wall bioreactor.¹² The last one has been shown to increase chondrocyte and ASC proliferation and cartilage ECM deposition on scaffolds over the common spinner flask culture. Compared with a spinner flask, this novel bioreactor reduces fluid shear stresses and increases axial mixing, and seems to be more suitable and effective for cartilage engineering.⁸⁰

Conclusion

Recently, tissue engineering has begun to provide alternative possibilities in clinical practice for healing patients with damaged articular cartilage. It combines cells, chondrogenic stimuli and appropriate scaffolds to prepare a biological substitute of hyaline cartilage tissue. Further investigations will be focused on producing and testing of new bioactive and biocompatible polymers with controlled biodegradability. Greater attention will be given to the use of layered scaffolds to recreate the zonal organization of hyaline cartilage. Considerable progress can be expected on the field of stem-cell research, especially in combination with gene therapy. The abovementioned will bring new approaches for cartilage tissue engineering and will be conducive in the treatment of various joint diseases, including osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Author contributions: All authors participated in the design, interpretation of the studies and review of the manuscript. LD and IV wrote the manuscript.

Footnotes

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present work was supported by the grant VEGA No. 1/0706/11 and partially by the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic under the project No. 2007/36-UK-07.

References

Strehl

, Tallheden

, Sjogren-Jansson

, Minuth

, Lindahl

. Long-term maintenance of human articular cartilage in culture for biomaterial testing. Biomaterials 2005;26:4540–9

Brown

, Johnston

, Saltzman

, Marsh

, Buckwalter

. Posttraumatic osteoarthritis: a first estimate of incidence, prevalence, and burden of disease. J Orthop Trauma 2006;20:739–44

Buckwalter

. Articular cartilage injuries. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2002;402:21–37

Kellett

, Boscainos

, Gross

. Surgical options for articular defects of the knee. Expert Rev Med Devices 2006;3:585–93

Tew

, Kwan

, Hann

, Thomson

, Archer

. The reactions of articular cartilage to experimental wounding: role of apoptosis. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43:215–25

Darling

, Athanasiou

. Rapid phenotypic changes in passaged articular chondrocyte subpopulations. J Orthop Res 2005;23:425–32

Vinatier

, Bouffi

, Merceron

, Gordeladze

, Brondello

, Jorgensen

, Weiss

, Guicheux

, Noël

. Cartilage tissue engineering: towards a biomaterial-assisted mesenchymal stem cell therapy. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 2009;4:318–29

Brittberg

, Lindahl

, Nilsson

, Ohlsson

, Isaksson

, Peterson

. Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation. N Engl J Med 1994;331:889–95

Schnabel

, Marlovits

, Eckhoff

, Fichtel

, Gotzen

, Vecsei

, Schlegel

. Dedifferentiation-associated changes in morphology and gene expression in primary human articular chondrocytes in cell culture. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2002;10:62–70

10.

Sohn

, Lottman

, Lum

, Kim

, Pedowitz

, Coutts

, Sah

. Effect of gravity on localization of chondrocytes implanted in cartilage defects. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2002;394:254–62

11.

Schulze-Tanzil

. Activation and dedifferentiation of chondrocytes: implications in cartilage injury and repair. Ann Anat 2009;191:325–38

12.

Chung

, Burdick

. Engineering cartilage tissue. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2008;60:243–62

13.

Di Martino

, Sittinger

, Risbud

. Chitosan: a versatile biopolymer for orthopaedic tissue-engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26:5983–90

14.

Yates

, Allemann

, Glowacki

. Phenotypic analysis of bovine chondrocytes cultured in 3D collagen sponges: effect of serum substitutes. Cell Tissue Bank 2005;6:45–54

15.

Anderer

, Libera

. In vitro engineering of human autogenous cartilage. J Bone Miner Res 2002;17:1420–9

16.

Tuan

, Boland

, Tuli

. Adult mesenchymal stem cells and cell-based tissue engineering. Arthritis Res Ther 2003;5:32–45

17.

García-Gómez

, Elvira

, Zapata

, Lamana

, Ramírez

, Castro

, Arranz

, Vicente

, Bueren

, García-Olmo

. Mesenchymal stem cells: biological properties and clinical applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2010;10:1453–68

18.

Shanti

, Li

, Nesti

, Wang

, Tuan

. Adult mesenchymal stem cells. Biological properties, characteristics, and applications in maxillofacial surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2007;65:1640–47

19.

Caplan

. Mesenchymal stem cells. J Orthop Res 1991;9:641–50

20.

LeBlanc

, Pittenger

. Mesenchymal stem cells: progress toward promise. Cytotherapy 2005;7:36–45

21.

Rojewski

, Weber

, Schrezenmeier

. Phenotypic characterization of mesenchymal stem cells from various tissues. Transfus Med Hemother 2008;35:168–84

22.

Battula

, Treml

, Bareiss

, Gieseke

, Roelofs

, Zwart

, Muller

, Schewe

, Skutella

, Fibbe

, Kanz

, Buhring

. Isolation of functionally distinct mesenchymal stem cell subsets using antibodies against CD56, CD271, and mesenchymal stem cell antigen-1. Haematologica 2009;94:173–84

23.

Johnstone

, Hering

, Caplan

, Goldberg

, Yoo

. In vitro chondrogenesis of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells. Exp Cell Res 1998;238:265–72

24.

Bosnakovski

, Mizuno

, Kim

, Ishiguro

, Okumura

, Iwanaga

, Kadosawa

, Fujinaga

. Chondrogenic differentiation of bovine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in pellet cultural system. Exp Hematol 2004;32:502–9

25.

Huang

, Zuk

, Jones

, Zhu

, Lorenz

, Hedrick

, Benhaim

. Chondrogenic potential of multipotential cells from human adipose tissue. Plast Reconstruct Surg 2004;113:585–94

26.

Chiou

, Xu

, Longaker

. Mitogenic and chondrogenic effects of fibroblast growth factor-2 in adipose-derived mesenchymal cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006;343:644–52

27.

Estes

, Wu

, Guilak

. Potent induction of chondrocytic differentiation of human adiposederived adult stem cells by bone morphogenetic protein 6. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:1222–32

28.

Havlas

, Kos

, Jendelová

, Lesný

, Trč

, Syková

. Comparison of chondrogenic differentiation of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells with cultured chondrocytes and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Acta Chir Orthop Traumatol Cech 2011;78:138–44

29.

Choi

, Noh

, Lim

, Lee

, Kim

, Im

, Lee

, Kim

. Multipotency and growth characteristic of periosteum-derived progenitor cells for chondrogenic, osteogenic, and adipogenic differentiation. Biotechnol Lett 2008;30:593–601

30.

Arufe

, De la Fuente

, Fuentes

, de Toro

, Blanco

. Chondrogenic potential of subpopulations of cells expressing mesenchymal stem cell markers derived from human synovial membranes. J Cell Biochem 2010;111:834–45

31.

, Wang

, Chen

, An

. Muscle-derived stem cells: isolation, characterization, differentiation, and application in cell and gene therapy. Cell Tissue Res 2010;340:549–67

32.

Nesic

, Whiteside

, Brittberg

, Wendt

, Martin

, Mainil-Varlet

. Cartilage tissue engineering for degenerative joint disease. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2006;58:300–22

33.

Chung

, Yang

, Akaike

, Cho

, Nah

, Kim

, Cho

. Preparation of alginate/galactosylated chitosan scaffold for hepatocyte attachment. Biomaterials 2002;23:2827–34

34.

Liu

, Zhang

, Ren

, Wang

, Zhang

. Preparation and characterization of collagen-hydroxyapatite composite used for bone tissue engineering scaffold. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol 2003;31:435–48

35.

Yoo

, Lee

, Yoon

, Park

. Hyaluronic acid modified biodegradable scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26:1925–33

36.

Eriksson

, Cousens

, Weaver

, Matthews

. Three-dimensional structure of human basic fibroblast growth factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:3441–45

37.

Ishihara

, Shaklee

, Yang

, Liang

, Wei

, Stack

, Holme

. Structural features in heparin which modulate specific biological activities mediated by basic fibroblast growth factor. Glycobiology 1994;4:451–8

38.

Kimura

, Yasui

, Ohsawa

, Ono

. Chondrocytes embedded in collagen gels maintain cartilage phenotype during long-term cultures. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1984;186:231–9

39.

Zheng

, Fan

, Sun

, Chen

, Wang

, Zhang

, Fan

, Zhang

. Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells induced by collagen-based hydrogel: an in vivo study. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010;93:783–92

40.

Zheng

, Willers

, Kirilak

, Yates

, Xu

, Wood

, Shimmin

. Matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation (MACI): biological and histological assessment. Tissue Eng 2007;13:737–46

41.

Evanko

, Tammi

, Wight

. Hyaluronan-dependent pericellular matrix. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2007;59:1351–65

42.

Grigolo

, Lisignoli

, Piacentini

, Fiorini

, Gobbi

, Mazzotti

, Duca

, Pavesio

, Facchini

. Evidence for redifferentiation of human chondrocytes grown on a hyaluronan-based biomaterial (HYAff 11): molecular, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analysis. Biomaterials 2002;23:1187–95

43.

Grigolo

, Lisignoli

, Desando

, Cavallo

, Marconi

, Tschon

, Giavaresi

, Fini

, Giardino

, Facchini

. Osteoarthritis treated with mesenchymal stem cells on hyaluronan-based scaffold in rabbit. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2009;15:647–58

44.

Jakobsen

, Shahdadfar

, Reinholt

, Brinchmann

. Chondrogenesis in a hyaluronic acid scaffold: comparison between chondrocytes and MSC from bone marrow and adipose tissue. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2010;18:1407–16

45.

Mosesson

. Fibrinogen and fibrin structure and functions. J Thromb Haemost 2005;3:1894–904

46.

Scotti

, Mangiavini

, Boschetti

, Vitari

, Domeneghini

, Fraschini

, Peretti

. Effect of in vitro culture on a chondrocyte-fibrin glue hydrogel for cartilage repair. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2010;18:1400–6

47.

Ahmed

, Giulivi

, Griffith

, Hincke

. Fibrin glues in combination with mesenchymal stem cells to develop a tissue-engineered cartilage substitute. Tissue Eng Part A 2011;17:323–35

48.

Chung

, Burdick

. Influence of three-dimensional hyaluronic acid microenvironments on mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenesis. Tissue Eng Part A 2008;15:243–54

49.

Lee

, Shin

. Matrices and scaffolds for delivery of bioactive molecules in bone and cartilage tissue engineering. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2007;59:339–59

50.

Hsu

, Chang

, Yen

, Whu

, Tsai

, Chen

. Evaluation of biodegradable polyesters modified by type II collagen and Arg-Gly-Asp as tissue engineering scaffolding materials for cartilage regeneration. Artif Organs 2006;30:42–55

51.

Lee

, Oh

, Hong

, Suh

, Hong

. Comparison of the synthetic biodegradable polymers, polylactide (PLA), and polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as scaffolds for artificial cartilage. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 2009;14:180–6

52.

Mehlhorn

, Zwingmann

, Finkenzeller

, Niemeyer

, Dauner

, Stark

, Südkamp

, Schmal

. Chondrogenesis of adipose-derived adult stem cells in a poly-lactide-co-glycolide scaffold. Tissue Eng Part A 2009;15:1159–67

53.

, Chang

, Wang

, Ho

. Enhancement of chondrogenesis of human adipose derived stem cells in a hyaluronan-enriched microenvironment. Biomaterials 2010;31:631–40

54.

Willerth

, Sakiyama-Elbert

. Combining stem cells and biomaterial scaffolds for constructing tissues and cell delivery. StemBook. Cambridge: Harvard Stem Cell Institute, 2008:1–18

55.

Hwang

, Sangaj

, Varghese

. Interconnected macroporous poly(ethylene glycol) cryogels as a cell scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part A 2010;16:3033–41

56.

Liu

, Tian

, Hedrick

, Po Hui

, Ee

, Yang

. Biomimetic hydrogels for chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells to neocartilage. Biomaterials 2010;31:7298–307

57.

Barnard

, Lyons

, Moses

. The cell biology of transforming growth factor beta. Biochim Biophys Acta 1990;1032:79–87

58.

Blaney Davidson

, van der Kraan

, van den Berg

. TGF-beta and osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2007;15:597–604

59.

Thorpe

, Buckley

, Vinardell

, O'Brien

, Campbell

, Kelly

. The response of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells to dynamic compression following TGF-beta3 induced chondrogenic differentiation. Ann Biomed Eng 2010;38:2896–909

60.

Bessa

, Casal

, Reis

. Bone morphogenetic proteins in tissue engineering: the road from laboratory to clinic, part II (BMP delivery). J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2008;2:81–96

61.

Sekiya

, Larson

, Vuoristo

, Reger

, Prockop

. Comparison of effect of BMP-2, -4, and -6 on in vitro cartilage formation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma. Cell Tissue Res 2005;320:269–76

62.

Miljkovic

, Cooper

, Marra

. Chondrogenesis, bone morphogenetic protein-4 and mesenchymal stem cells. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2008;16:1121–30

63.

Chubinskaya

, Hurtig

, Rueger

. OP-1/BMP-7 in cartilage repair. Int Orthop 2007;31:773–81

64.

Gow

, Sester

, Hume

. CSF-1, IGF-1, and the control of postnatal growth and development. J Leukoc Biol 2010;88:475–81

65.

Schmidt

, Chen

, Lynch

. A review of the effects of insulin-like growth factor and platelet derived growth factor on in vivo cartilage healing and repair. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2006;14:403–12

66.

Longobardi

, O'Rear

, Aakula

, Johnstone

, Shimer

, Chytil

, Horton

, Moses

, Spagnoli

. Effect of IGF-I in the chondrogenesis of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in the presence or absence of TGF-beta signaling. J Bone Miner Res 2006;21:626–36

67.

, Hu

, Heng

, Yang

, Ouyang

, Lee

, Cao

. Osteoarthritis and therapy. Arthritis Rheum 2006;55:493–500

68.

Park

, Na

. Effect of growth factors on chondrogenic differentiation of rabbit mesenchymal cells embedded in injectable hydrogels. J Biosci Bioeng 2008;106:74–9

69.

Moore

, Bendele

, Thompson

, Littau

, Waggie

, Reardon

, Ellsworth

. Fibroblast growth factor-18 stimulates chondrogenesis and cartilage repair in a rat model of injury-induced osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2005;13:623–31

70.

Yamaoka

, Nishizawa

, Asawa

, Fujihara

, Ogasawara

, Yamaoka

, Nagata

, Takato

, Hoshi

. Involvement of fibroblast growth factor 18 in dedifferentiation of cultured human chondrocytes. Cell Prolif 2010;43:67–76

71.

Davidson

, Blanc

, Filion

, Wang

, Plut

, Pfeffer

, Buschmann

, Henderson

. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 18 signals through FGF receptor 3 to promote chondrogenesis. J Biol Chem 2005;280:20509–15

72.

Scherer

, Schunke

, Sellckau

, Hassenpflug

, Kurz

. The influence of oxygen and hydrostatic pressure on articular chondrocytes and adherent bone marrow cells in vitro . Biorheology 2004;41:323–33

73.

, Athanasiou

. The effects of intermittent hydrostatic pressure on self-assembled articular cartilage constructs. Tissue Eng 2006;12:1337–44

74.

Miyanishi

, Trindade

MCD

, Lindsey

, Beaupre

, Carter

, Goodman

, Schurman

, Smith

. Dose- and time-dependent effects of cyclic hydrostatic pressure on transforming growth factor-beta 3-induced chondrogenesis by adult human mesenchymal stem cells in vitro . Tissue Eng 2006;12:2253–62

75.

Risbud

, Sittinger

. Tissue engineering: advances in in vitro cartilage generation. Trends Biotechnol 2002;20:351–6

76.

Vunjak-Novakovic

, Martin

, Obradovic

, Treppo

, Grodzinsky

, Langer

, Freed

. Bioreactor cultivation conditions modulate the composition and mechanical properties of tissue-engineered cartilage. J Orthop Res 1999;17:130–8

77.

Wang

, Wu

, Wang

, Lin

, Sun

. Regulation of adult human mesenchymal stem cells into osteogenic and chondrogenic lineages by different bioreactor systems. J Biomed Mater Res A 2009;88:935–46

78.

Lin

, Yen

, Hu

, Wu

, Liao

, Chu

. Chondrocytes culture in three-dimensional porous alginate scaffolds enhanced cell proliferation, matrix synthesis and gene expression. J Biomed Mater Res A 2009;88:23–33

79.

Gonçalves

, Costa

, Rodrigues

, Dias

, Reis

, Gomes

. Effect of flow perfusion conditions in the chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells cultured onto starch based biodegradable scaffolds. Acta Biomater 2011;7:1644–52

80.

Bueno

, Laevsky

, Barabino

. Enhancing cell seeding of scaffolds in tissue engineering through manipulation of hydrodynamic parameters. J Biotechnol 2007;129:516–31