The ratio of Stokes to anti-Stokes nonresonant spontaneous Raman can provide an in situ thermometer that is noncontact, independent of any material specific parameters or calibrations, can be multiplexed spatially with line imaging, and can be time resolved for dynamic measurements. However, spontaneous Raman cross sections are very small, and thermometric measurements are often limited by the amount of laser energy that can be applied without damaging the sample or changing its temperature appreciably. In this paper, we quantitatively detail the tradeoff space between spatial, temporal, and thermometric accuracy measurable with spontaneous Raman. Theoretical estimates are pinned to experimental measurements to form realistic expectations of the resolution tradeoffs appropriate to various experiments. We consider the effects of signal to noise, collection efficiency, laser heating, pulsed laser ablation, and blackbody emission as limiting factors, provide formulae to help choose optimal conditions and provide estimates relevant to planning experiments along with concrete examples for single-shot measurements.
LacinaD.GuptaY.M.. “Temperature Measurements and an Improved Equation of State for Shocked Liquid Benzene”. J. Chem. Phys.2013. 138(17): 174506.
3.
PangilinanG.I.GuptaY.M.. “Use of Time-Resolved Raman Scattering to Determine Temperatures in Shocked Carbon Tetrachloride”. J. Appl. Phys.1997. 81(10): 6662–6669.
4.
PangilinanG.I.GuptaY.M.. “Temperature Determination in Shocked Condensed Materials Using Raman Scattering”. Appl. Phys. Lett.1997. 70(8): 967–969.
5.
WineyJ.M.DuvallG.E.KnudsonM.D.GuptaY.M.. “Equation of State and Temperature Measurements for Shocked Nitromethane”. J. Chem. Phys.2000. 113(17): 7492–7501.
6.
SugiyamaT.TsujiH.FurukawaY.. “Temperature Measurements of the PEDOT-PSS Layer in a Polymer Light-Emitting Diode by Stokes and Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering”. Chem. Phys. Lett.2008. 453(4–6), 238–241.
7.
TsujiH.OdaA.KidoJ.SugiyamaT.FurukawaY.. “Temperature Measurements of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes by Stokes and Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering”. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.2008. 47(4): 2171–2173.
8.
YuY.-J.HanM.Y.BerciaudS.GeorgescuA.B.HeinzT.F.BrusL.E.KimK.S.KimP.. “High-Resolution Spatial Mapping of the Temperature Distribution of a Joule Self-Heated Graphene Nanoribbon”. Appl. Phys. Lett.2011. 99(18): 183103–183105.
YamamotoK.MizutaniY.KitagawaT.. “Construction of Novel Nanosecond Temperature Jump Apparatuses Applicable to Raman Measurements and Direct Observation of Transient Temperature”. Appl. Spectrosc.2000. 54(11): 1591–1604.
11.
YamamotoK.MizutaniY.KitagawaT.. “Nanosecond Temperature Jump and Time-Resolved Raman Study of Thermal Unfolding of Ribonuclease A”. Biophys. J.2000. 79(1): 485–495.
12.
YoshinoT.MatsumotoM.OzekiY.ItohK.. “Energy-Dependent Temperature Dynamics in Femtosecond Laser Microprocessing Clarified by Raman Temperature Measurement”. In: Schoen-feldW.V.RumpfR.C.von FreymannG., editors. Advanced Fabrication Technologies for Micro/Nano Optics and Photonics V. Proc. SPIE.2012. 8249: 82491D. doi: 10.1117/12.906969.
13.
IwakiL.K.DeakJ.C.RheaS.T.DlottD.D.. “Vibrational Energy Redistribution in Liquid Benzene”. Chem. Phys. Lett.1999. 303(1–2), 176–182.
14.
SeongN.-H.FangY.DlottD.D.. “Vibrational Energy Dynamics of Normal and Deuterated Liquid Benzene”. J. Phys. Chem. A.2009. 113(8): 1445–1452.
15.
PeinB.C.SunY.DlottD.D.. “Unidirectional Vibrational Energy Flow in Nitrobenzene”. J. Phys. Chem. A.2013. 117(29): 6066–6072.
16.
WangZ.H.PangY.DlottD.D.. “Vibrational Energy Dynamics of Water Studied with Ultrafast Stokes and Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy”. Chem. Phys. Lett.2004. 397(1–3), 40–45.
DangN.C.BolmeC.A.MooreD.S.McGraneS.D.. “Temperature Measurements in Condensed Phases Using Non-Resonant Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Scattering”. J. Raman Spectrosc.2013. 44(3): 433–439.
19.
SchmidtS.C.MooreD.S.. “Vibrational Spectroscopy of High-Temperature, Dense Molecular Fluids by Coherent Anti-Stokes-Raman Scattering”. Acc. Chem. Res.1992. 25(9): 427–432.
20.
SchmidtS.C.SchiferlD.ZinnA.S.RaganD.D.MooreD.S.. “Calibration of the Nitrogen Vibron Pressure Scale for Use at High Temperatures and Pressures”. J. Appl. Phys.1991. 69(5): 2793–2799.
21.
RoyS.GordJ.R.PatnaikA.K.. “Recent Advances in Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Spectroscopy: Fundamental Developments and Applications in Reacting Flows”. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci.2010. 36(2): 280–306.
22.
FrankenJ.HambirS.A.HareD.E.DlottD.D.. “Shock Waves in Molecular Solids: Ultrafast Vibrational Spectroscopy of the First Nanosecond”. Shock Waves.1997. 7(3): 135–145.
23.
KoulikovS.G.DlottD.D.. “Ultrafast Microscopy of Laser Ablation of Refractory Materials: Ultra Low Threshold Stress-Induced Ablation”. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A.2001. 145(3): 183–194.
24.
RootS.GuptaY.M.. “Chemical Changes in Liquid Benzene Multiply Shock Compressed to 25 Gpa”. J. Phys. Chem. A.2009. 113(7): 1268–1277.
25.
WineyJ.M.GruzdkovY.A.DregerZ.A.JensenB.J.GuptaY.M.. “Thermomechanical Model and Temperature Measurements for Shocked Ammonium Perchlorate Single Crystals”. J. Appl. Phys.2002. 91(9): 5650–5656.
26.
LoH.W.CompaanA.. “Raman Measurement of Lattice Temperature During Pulsed Laser-Heating of Silicon”. Phys. Rev. Lett.1980. 44(24): 1604–1607.
27.
KatoY.TakumaH.. “Experimental Study on Wavelength Dependence of Raman Scattering Cross Sections”. J. Chem. Phys.1971. 54(12): 5398–5402.
28.
MaherR.C.CohenL.F.GallopJ.C.Le RuE.C.EtchegoinP.G.. “Temperature-Dependent Anti-Stokes/Stokes Ratios Under Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Conditions”. J. Phys. Chem. B.2006. 110(13): 6797–6803.
29.
MaherR.C.CohenL.F.Le RuE.C.EtchegoinP.G.. “A Study Of Local Heating Of Molecules Under Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Conditions Using the Anti-Stokes/Stokes Ratio”. Faraday Discuss.2006. 132: 77–83.
30.
HartmannJ.. “High-Temperature Measurement Techniques for the Application in Photometry, Radiometry and Thermometry”. Phys. Rep.2009. 469(5–6), 205–269.
31.
BlancoE.MexmainJ.M.ChapronP.. “Temperature Measurements of Shock Heated Materials Using Multispectral Pyrometry: Application to Bismuth”. Shock Waves.1999. 9(3): 209–214.
MillerJ.E.BoehlyT.R.MelchiorA.MeyerhoferD.D.CelliersP.M.EggertJ.H.HicksD.G.SorceC.M.OertelJ.A.EmmelP.M.. “Streaked Optical Pyrometer System for Laser-Driven Shock-Wave Experiments on Omega”. Rev. Sci. Instrum.2007. 78(3): 34903.
34.
Partouche-SebbanD.HoltkampD.B.RodriguezP.StoneJ.B.BorrorS.D.KruschwitzC.A.YoungJ.A.. “Alternative Calibration Techniques for High-Speed Pyrometers in Shock Experiments”. Rev. Sci. Instrum.2005. 76(1): 13106.
35.
La LoneB.M.StevensG.D.TurleyW.D.HoltkampD.B.IversonA.J.HixsonR.S.VeeserL.R.. “Release Path Temperatures of Shock-Compressed Tin from Dynamic Reflectance and Radiance Measurements”. J. Appl. Phys.2013. 114(6): 063506.
MooreD.S.McGraneS.D.. “Raman Temperature Measurement”. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser.2014. 500: 192011.
38.
BrandtN.N.BrovkoO.O.ChikishevA.Y.ParaschukO.D.. “Optimization of the Rolling-Circle Filter for Raman Background Subtraction”. Appl. Spectrosc.2006. 60(3): 288–293.
39.
HeaneyP.J.VeblenD.R.. “Observations of the Alpha-Beta-Phase Transition in Quartz: A Review of Imaging and Diffraction Studies and Some New Results”. Am. Mineral.1991. 76(5–6), 1018–1032.
40.
TalerJ.DudaP.. Solving Direct and Inverse Heat Conduction Problems. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2006.
41.
KuzuuN.YoshidaK.YoshidaH.KamimuraT.KamisugiN.. “Laser-Induced Bulk Damage in Various Types of Vitreous Silica at 1064, 532, 355, and 266 nm: Evidence of Different Damage Mechanisms Between 266-nm and Longer Wavelengths”. Appl. Opt.1999. 38(12): 2510–2515.
42.
GronvoldF.StolenS.SvendsenS.R.. “Heat-Capacity of Alpha-Quartz from 298.15-k to 847.3-k, and of Beta-Quartz from 847.3-k to 1000-k: Transition Behavior and Revaluation of the Thermodynamic Properties”. Thermochim. Acta.1989. 139225–139243.
43.
LaiY.M.CheungN.H.. “Pulsed Laser-Induced Damage Threshold Studies of Thin Aluminum Films on Quartz: Simultaneous Monitoring of Optical and Acoustic-Signals”. Rev. Sci. Instrum.1993. 64(6): 1606–1610.
