To examine longitudinal differences in reported stress between parents of children with and without single-suture craniosynostosis and to compare the stress reports of mothers and fathers.
Design
Multi-site, nonrandomized prospective study.
Setting/Participants
Children with single-suture craniosynostosis (cases) were identified via referral of the treating surgeon or physician at the time of diagnosis, and those without single-suture craniosynostosis (controls) were recruited from pediatric practices, birthing centers, and announcements in print media. When children were aged 6, 18, and 36 months (on average), mothers and fathers of children with and without single-suture craniosynostosis completed the Parenting Stress Index. For cases, 247 mothers and 211 fathers completed the Parenting Stress Index at the first visit; corresponding numbers for controls were 254 and 220, respectively.
Main Outcome Measures
The Parenting Stress Index Parent and Child Domains and subscales scores.
Results
We found few differences between parents of infants with and without single-suture craniosynostosis, regardless of parent gender. Irrespective of case status, mothers consistently reported higher stress than fathers on the Parent Domain. Within the Parent Domain, mothers reported more stress than fathers on the Role Restriction and Spousal Support subscales.
Conclusions
The parents of children with single-suture craniosynostosis reported levels of stress similar to those reported by parents of same-aged, unaffected children. Mothers reported greater stress than fathers, and these differences remained remarkably stable over time. This may reflect widely held perceptions of gender differences in parenting roles.
AbidinR.R.The Parenting Stress Index Professional Manual.Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources;1995.
2.
BakerL., McIntyreL.L., BlacherJ., CrnicK., EdelbrockC., LowC.Preschool children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time. J Intellect Disabil Res.2003; 47: 217–230.
3.
BeckJ., ParentA., AngelM.F.Chronic headache as a sequela of rigid fixation for craniosynostosis. J Craniofac Surg.2002; 13: 327–330.
4.
CloonanY.K., CollettB.R., SpeltzM.L., AnderkaM., WerlerM.M.Psychosocial outcomes in children with and without non-syndromic craniosynostosis: findings from two studies. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.2013; 50: 406–413.
5.
CollettB.R., CloonanY.K., SpeltzM.L., AnderkaM.Psychosocial functioning in children with and without orofacial clefts and their parents. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.2011; 49: 397–405.
6.
EndrigaM.C., Kapp-SimonK.A.Psychological issues in craniofacial care: state of the art. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.1999; 36: 3–11.
7.
FullerG.B., RankinR.E.Differences in levels of parental stress among mothers of learning disabled, emotionally impaired, and regular school children. Percep Mot Skills.1994; 78: 583–592.
8.
GrayP.H., EdwardsD.M., O'CallaghanM.J., CuskellyM.Parenting stress in mothers of preterm infants during early infancy. Early Hum Dev.2012; 88: 45–49.
9.
GuptaV.Comparison of parenting stress in different developmental disabilities. J Dev Phys Disabil.2007; 19: 417–425.
10.
Hauser-CramP., WarfiedM.E., ShonkoffJ.P., KraussM.W., SayerA., UpshurC.C.Children with disabilities: a longitudinal study of child development and parent well-being. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev.2001; 66(3): i–viii, 1–126.
11.
HollingsheadA.B.Four Factor Index of Social Status.New Haven: Yale University;1975.
12.
JeongY.G., JeongY.J., BangJ.A.Effect of social support on parenting stress of Korean mothers of children with cerebral palsy. J Phys Ther Sci.2013; 25: 1339–1342.
13.
Kapp-SimonK.A., CollettB.R., Barr-SchinzelM.A., CradockM.M., BuonoL.A., PietilaK.E., SpeltzM.L.Behavioral adjustment of toddler and preschool-aged children with single-suture craniosynostosis. Plast Reconstr Surg.2012; 130: 635–647.
14.
Kapp-SimonK.A., SpeltzM.L., CunninghamM.L., PatelP.K., TomitaT.Neurodevelopment of children with single suture craniosynostosis: a review. Childs Nerv Syst.2007; 23: 269–281.
15.
KrueckebergS.M., Kapp-SimonK.Effect of parental factors on social skills of preschool children with craniofacial anomalies. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.1993; 30: 490–496.
16.
LeppigK.A., WerlerM.M., CannC.I., CookC.A., HolmesL.B.Predictive value of minor anomalies. I. Association with major malformations. J Pediatr.1987; 110: 531–537.
17.
LiangK., ZegerS.L.Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika.1986; 73: 13–22.
18.
MarshJ.L., JennyA., GalicM., PickerS., VannierM.W.Surgical management of sagittal synostosis. A quantitative evaluation of two techniques. Neurosurg Clin N Am.1991; 2: 629–640.
19.
McCarthyJ.G., WarrenS.M., BernsteinJ., BurnettW., CunninghamM.L., EdmondJ.C., FigueroaA.A., Kapp-SimonK.A., LabowB.I., Peterson-FalzoneS.J.. Parameters of care for craniosynostosis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.2012; 49(suppl 1): 1S–24S.
20.
OelofsenN., RichardsonP.Sense of coherence and parenting stress in mothers and fathers of preschool children with developmental disability. J Intellect Dev Disabil.2006; 31: 1–12.
21.
OngL.C., ChandranV., BooN.Y.Comparison of parenting stress between Malaysian mothers of four-year-old very low birthweight and normal birthweight children. Acta Paediatr.2001; 90: 1464–1469.
22.
OngL.C., NorshireenN.A., ChandranV.A comparison of parenting stress between mothers of children with spina bifida and able-bodied controls. Dev Neurorehabil.2011; 14: 22–28.
23.
OstbergM., HagekullB.A structural modeling approach to the understanding of parenting stress. J Clin Child Psychol.2000; 29: 615–625.
24.
PattersonJ.M.Families experiencing stress: I. The Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model: II. Applying the FAAR Model to health-related issues for intervention and research. Fam Syst Med.1988; 6: 202–237.
25.
PelchatD., LefebvreH., LevertM.Gender differences and similarities in the experience of parenting a child with a health problem: current state of knowledge. J Child Health Care.2007; 11: 112–131.
26.
PelchatD., RicardN., BouchardJ.M., PerreaultM., SaucierJ.F., BerthiaumeM., BissonJ.Adaptation of parents in relation to their 6-month-old infant's type of disability. Child Care Health Dev.1999; 25: 377–397.
27.
PopeA.W., TillmanK., SnyderH.T.Parenting stress in infancy and psychosocial adjustment in toddlerhood: a longitudinal study of children with craniofacial anomalies. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.2005; 42: 556–559.
28.
RosenbergJ.M., Kapp-SimonK.A., StarrJ.R., CradockM., SpeltzM.L.Mothers' and fathers' reports of stress in families of infants with and without single-suture craniosynostosis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J.2011; 8: 509–518.
29.
ShinJ.Y., NhanN.V.Predictors of parenting stress among Vietnamese mothers of young children with and without cognitive delay. J Intellect Dev Disabil.2009; 34: 17–26.
30.
SingerL.T., SalvatorA., GuoS., CollinM., LilienL., BaleyJ.Maternal psychological distress and parenting stress after the birth of a very low-birth-weight infant. J Am Med Assoc.1999; 281: 799–805.
31.
SingerL.T., FultonS., KirchnerH.L., EisengartS., LewisB., ShortE., MinM.O., SatayathumS., KercsmarC., BaleyJ.E.Longitudinal predictors of maternal stress and coping after very low-birth-weight birth. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.2010; 164: 518–524.
32.
SkariH., SkredenM., MaltU.F., DalholtM., OstensenA.B., EgelandT., EmblemR.Comparative levels of psychological distress, stress symptoms, depression and anxiety after childbirth—a prospective population-based study of mothers and fathers. Br J Obstet Gynaecol.2002; 109: 1154–1163.
33.
SkredenM., SkariH., BjörkM., MaltU., VeenstraM., FaugliA., EmblemR.Psychological distress in mothers and fathers of preschool children: a 5-year follow-up study after birth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol.2008; 115: 462–471.
34.
SpeltzM.L., EndrigaM.C., FisherP.A., MasonC.A.Early predictors of attachment in infants with cleft lip and/or palate. Child Dev.1997; 68: 12–25.
35.
SpeltzM.L., Kapp-SimonK., CunninghamM., MarshJ., DawsonG.Single-suture craniosynostosis: a review of neurobehavioral research and theory. J Pediatr Psychol.2004; 29: 651–668.
36.
StarrJ.R., CollettB.R., GaitherR., Kapp-SimonK.A., CradockM.M., CunninghamM.L., SpeltzM.L.Multicenter study of neurodevelopment in 3-year-old children with and without single-suture craniosynostosis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.2012; 166: 536–542.
37.
TreyvaudK., DoyleL.W., LeeK.J., RobertsG., CheongJ.L., InderT.E., AndersonP.J.Family functioning, burden and parenting stress 2 years after very preterm birth. Early Hum Dev.2011; 87: 427–431.
38.
WilkieA.O., SlaneyS.F., OldridgeM., PooleM.D., AshworthG.J., HockleyA.D., HaywardR.D., DavidD.J., PulleynL.J., RutlandP.Apert syndrome results from localized mutations of FGFR2 and is allelic with Crouzon syndrome. Nat Genet.1995; 9: 165–172.
