The primary aim for this research was to explore the overlap and differences between the concepts related to secondary traumatization: posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), secondary traumatic stress (STS), compassion fatigue (CF), and burnout (BRN). A secondary aim for this research was to examine the impact of secondary traumatization and some of the personal and professional elements that affect how pediatric healthcare providers experience PTSD, STS, CF, and BRN. An online survey was sent via e-mail to numerous list serves for healthcare providers who had worked on PICU, NICU, or PEDS units within the last year. The analyses revealed that a significant overlap existed between the terms of STS, PTSD, BRN, CS, and CF for PICU, NICU, and PEDS providers. However, a hierarchical linear regression revealed a significant amount of unique contributions to the variance in CF based on each of the measured concepts. Despite previous literature that indicates that the terms STS and CF can be used interchangeably, the two most prominent measures utilized in the assessment of CF and STS are actually capturing at least some unique elements. Given these results, future researchers should examine and conceptualize the difference in etiology, prevalence, symptoms, and treatment efficacy for CF and STS as separate but related entities and then return their focus to understanding secondary traumatization in healthcare providers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbendrothM., & FlanneryJ. (2006). Predicting the risk of compassion fatigue. Journal of Hospice and Palliative Nursing, 8, 346–356.
2.
AdamsR.BoscarinoJ., & FigleyC. (2006). Compassion fatigue and psychological distress among social workers: A validation study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 103–108.
3.
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2002). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4.
BairdK., & KracenA. (2006). Vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress: A research synthesis. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 19, 181–188.
5.
BartzC., & MaloneyJ. (1986). Burnout among intensive care nurses. Research in Nursing and Health, 9, 147–153.
6.
BeaverR.SharpE., & ContronisG. (1986). Burnout experienced by nurse-midwives. Journal of Nurse Midwifery, 31, 3–19.
7.
BecvarD. (2003). The impact on the family therapist of a focus on death, dying, and bereavement. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 29, 469–477.
8.
BrideB. (2007). Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 52(1), 63–70.
9.
BrideB.RobinsonM.YegidisB., & FigleyC. (2004). Development and validation of the secondary traumatic stress scale. Research on Social Work Practice, 14, 27–35.
10.
BriefA., & WeissH. (2002). Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace. Annual Review in Psychology, 53, 279–307.
11.
BriereJ. (1997). Psychological assessment of adult posttraumatic states. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
12.
BroscheT. (2003). Death, dying, and the ICU nurse. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 22, 173–179.
13.
ClarkM., & GioroS. (1998). Nurses, indirect trauma, and prevention. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 30, 85–87.
14.
CollinsS., & LongA. (2003a). Too tired to care? The psychological effects of working with trauma. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 10, 17–27.
15.
CollinsS., & LongA. (2003b). Working with the psychological effects of trauma: Consequences for mental health-care workers—A literature review. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 10, 417–424.
16.
ConstableJ., & RussellD. (1986). The effect of social support and the work environment upon burnout among nurses. Journal of Human Stress, 20–26.
17.
FigleyC. (1995). Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
18.
FigleyC. (2002a). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists' chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology/In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice, 58 (11), 1433–1441.
19.
FigleyC. (2002b). Treating compassion fatigue. New York: Brunner/Routledge.
20.
FigleyC., & StammB. (1996). Psychometric review of Compassion Fatigue Self Test. http://www.isu/edu/∼bhstamm/pdf/figleystamm.pdf. In StammB. H. (Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation. Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
21.
HurstS. (2005). A pilot qualitative study relating to hardiness in ICU nurses. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 24, 97–100.
22.
JenkinsS., & BairdS. (2002). Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 423–432.
23.
JoinsonC. (1992). Coping with compassion fatigue. Nursing, 22, 116–122.
24.
KesslerR.SonnegaA.BrometE., & NelsonC. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.
25.
KnappJ., & Mulligan-SmithD. (2005). Death of a child in the emergency department. Pediatrics, 115, 1432.
26.
MaytumJ.HeimanM., & GarwickA. (2004). Compassion fatigue and burnout in nurses who work with children with chronic conditions and their families. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 18, 171–179.
27.
MeadorsP., & LamsonA. (2008). Compassion fatigue and secondary traumatization: Provider self care on intensive care units for children. Journal of Pediatric Healthcare, 22(1), 24–34.
28.
MendenhallT. (2006). Trauma-response teams: Inherent challenges and practical strategies in interdisciplinary fieldwork. Families, Systems, and Health, 24, 357–362.
29.
National Center for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. (2006). Epidemiological facts about PTSD. Retrieved on October 12, 2007, from http://www.ncptsd.va.gov
30.
OrtleppK., & FriedmanM. (2002). Prevalence and correlates of secondary traumatic stress in workplace lay trauma counselors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 213–222.
31.
Peebles-KleigerM. (2000). Pediatric and neonatal intensive care hospitalization as traumatic stressor: Implications for intervention. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 64, 257–280.
32.
PfifferlingJ., & GilleyK. (2000). Overcoming compassion fatigue. Family Practice Management, 7, 39–45.
33.
RichV., & RichA. (1987). Personality and hardiness and burnout in female staff nurses. Image Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 19, 63–66.
34.
Sabin-FarrellR., & TurpinG. (2003). Vicarious traumatization: Implications for the mental health of health workers?Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 449–480.
35.
SaboB. (2006). Compassion fatigue and nursing work: Can we accurately capture the consequences of caring work?International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12, 136–142.
36.
SalstonM., & FigleyC. (2003). Secondary traumatic stress effects of working with survivors of criminal victimization. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 167–174.
37.
SchwamK. (1998). The phenomenon of compassion fatigue in perioperative nursing. Association of Operating Room Nurses Journal, 68, 642–645.
38.
StammB. (2002). Measuring compassion satisfaction as well as fatigue: Developmental history of the compassion fatigue and satisfaction test. In FigleyC. R. (Ed.), Treating compassion fatigue (pp. 107–119). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
39.
ThomasR., & WilsonJ. (2004). Issues and controversies in the understanding and diagnosis of compassion fatigue, vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 6, 81–92.
40.
TopfM. (1989). Personality hardiness, occupational stress and burnout in critical care nurses. Research in Nursing and Health, 13, 179–186.
41.
ValentP. (2002). Diagnosis and treatment of helper stresses, traumas, and illnesses. In FigleyC. (ed.). Treating compassion fatigue (pp. 13–37). New York: Brunner/Routledge.
WeissD., & MarmarC. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In WilsonJ. & KeaneT. (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399–411). New York: Guilford.
44.
WhiteD. (2006). The hidden costs of caring: What manager need to know. The Health Care Manager, 25, 341–347.
45.
WilkinK., & SlevinE. (2004). The meaning of caring to nurses: An investigation into the nature of caring work in an intensive care unit. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 50–59.
46.
WorleyC. (2005). The art of caring: Compassion fatigue. Dermatology Nursing, 17, 416.
47.
WrightB. (2004). Compassion fatigue: How to avoid it. Palliative Medicine, 18, 3–4.
48.
YaskoJ. (1983). Variables which predict burnout experienced by oncology clinical nurse specialists. Cancer Nursing, 6, 109–116.
