This article presents a study of grade retention as it ‘naturally’ occurs, focusing on teachers' role in the process leading to retention or promotion for comparable peers. Achievement and IQ were measured prior to the retention decision. A total of 4248 second grade students initially participated in the study, of which 2.3% were retained. Eighty-three retained students were involved in the study, and matched with 83 low-achieving peers. Measures at the teacher's level included attitude towards the efficiency of retention, towards criteria that ought to be taken into account in the decision and general attribution of children's difficulties in school. Teacher decision-making shows internal consistency but seems biased when objective criteria are examined. The probability of a child being retained was substantially influenced by teachers' attitude towards the efficiency of retention as well as by their evaluations of developmental maturity, intellectual potential and their achievement expectancies in language.
References
1.
AjzenI. & FishbeinM. (1980) Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
2.
AlexanderK.L.EntwisleD.R. & DauberS.L. (1994) On the Success of Failure: A reassessment of the effects of retention in the primary grades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3.
AllingtonR-L. & McGill-FranzenA. (1992) Unintended Effects of Educational Reform in New York, Educational Policy, 6, pp. 397–414.
4.
Anderson-LevittK.M.SirotaR. & MazurierM. (1991) Elementary Education in France, Elementary School Journal, 92, pp. 79–95.
5.
AndrewsT.J.WisniewskiJ.J. & MulickJ.A. (1997) Variables Influencing Teachers' Decisions to Refer Children for School Psychological Assessment Services, Psychology in the Schools, 34, pp. 239–244.
6.
BarnettK.P.ClarizioH.F. & PayetteK.A. (1996) Grade Retention among Students with Learning Disabilities, Psychology in the Schools, 33, pp. 285–293.
7.
BennettR.E.GottesmanR.L.RockD.A. & CerulloF. (1993) Influence of Behavior Perceptions and Gender on Teachers' Judgments of Students' Academic Skill, Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, pp. 347–356.
8.
BlessG. (2002) Zur Wirksamkeit der Integration: Forschungsüberblick, praktische Umsetzung einer integrativen Schulform, Untersuchungen zum Lernfortschritt, 2nd edition. Bern: Haupt.
9.
BlessG. & KronigW. (1999) Wie integrationsfähig ist die Schweizer Schule geworden?Eine bildungsstatistische Analyse über schulorganisatorische Massnahmen bei Normabweichungen VHN, 68, pp. 414–426.
10.
ByrnesD.A. & YamamotoK. (1986) Views on Grade Repetition, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 20, pp. 14–20.
11.
CadiganD.EntwisleD.R.AlexanderK.L. & PallasA.M. (1988) First-grade Retention among Low Achieving Students: A search for significant predictors, Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 34, pp. 71–88.
DauberS.L.AlexanderK.L. & EntwisleD.R. (1993) Characteristics of Retainees and Early Precursors of Retention in Grade: Who is held back?Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 39, pp. 326–343.
14.
EaglyA.H. & ChaikenS. (1998) Attitude Structure and Function, in GilbertD.T.FiskeS.T. & LindzeyG. (Eds) Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. I, 4th edn.Boston: McGraw-Hill.
15.
Eurydice-Eurostat (2003) Key Data on Education in Europe 2002. Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications for the European Communities (EUR-OP).
16.
GeorgiouS.N.ChristouC.StavrinidesP. & PanaouraG. (2002) Teacher Attributions of Student Failure and Teacher Behavior toward the Failing Student, Psychology in the Schools, 39, pp. 583–595.
17.
HaeberlinU.BlessG.MoserU. & KlaghoferR. (1999) Die Integration von Lernbehinderten: Versuche, Theorien, Forschungen, Enttäuschungen, Hoffnungen, 3rd edn.Bern: Haupt.
18.
HauserR.M. (1999) Should We End Social Promotion? Truth and Consequences, CDE Working Paper No. 99–06. University of Wisconsin-Madison: Center for Demography and Ecology.
19.
HauserR.M.PagerD.I. & SimmonsS.J. (2001) Race-ethnicity, Social Background, and Grade Retention. An Analysis of the Last Thirty Years, CEIC Review, 10(5), pp. 11–12.
20.
HolmesC.T. (1989) Grade Level Retention Effects: A meta-analysis of research studies, in ShepardL. & SmithM.L. (Eds) Flunking Grades: Research and policies on retention, pp. 16–33. London: Falmer Press.
21.
IDES — Information Documentation Education Suisse (2002) Données de base sur le système éducatif. Berne: CDIP/EDK.
22.
JimersonS.R. (2001) Meta-analysis of the Effects of Grade Retention 1990–1999, CEIC Review, 10(5), pp. 7–8.
23.
JimersonS.R.AndersonG.E. & WhippleA.A. (2002) Winning the Battle and Losing the War: Examining the relation between grade retention and dropping out of high school, Psychology in the Schools, 39, pp. 441–457.
24.
JussimL.J. & EcclesJ. (1995) Are Teacher Expectations Biased by Students' Gender, Social Class, or Ethnicity? in LeeY-T.JussimL.J. & McCauleyC.R. (Eds) Stereotype Accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences. Washington: American Psychological Association.
25.
KronigW.HaeberlinU. & EckhartM. (2000) Immigrantenkinder und schulische Selektion. Pädagogische Visionen, theoretische Erklärungen und empirische Untersuchungen zur Wirkung integrierender und separierender Schulformen in den Grundschuljahren. Bern: Paul Haupt.
26.
MantzicopoulosP. & MorrisonD.C. (1992) Kindergarten Retention: Academic and behavioral outcomes through the end of second grade, American Educational Research Journal, 29, pp. 182–198.
27.
McLeskeyJ. & GrizzleK.L. (1992) Grade Retention Rates among Students with Learning Disabilities, Exceptional Children, 58, pp. 548–554.
28.
MillerM.FrazierC.C. & RicheyD.D. (1980) Student Nonpromotion and Teacher Attitude, Contemporary Education, 51, pp. 155–157.
29.
OakesJ. (2001) Can Unlike Children Learn Together? A Question that Goes to the Heart of Democratic Public Schooling, CEIC Review, 10(5), pp. 9–10.
30.
OakesJ. & HeckmanP.E. (1995) Age Grouping of Students, in AndersonL.W. (Ed.) International Encyclopedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, 2nd edn.Oxford: Elsevier.
OrtonR.E. (1997) Toward an Aristotelian Model of Teaching Reasoning, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29, pp. 569–583.
33.
OsborneS.S.SchulteA.C. & McKinneyJ.D. (1991) A Longitudinal Study of Students with Learning Disabilities in Mainstream and Resource Programs, Exceptionality, 2(2), pp. 81–95.
34.
PajaresM.F. (1992) Teachers' Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning up a messy construct, Review of Educational Research, 62, pp. 307–332.
PiniG. (1991) Effets et méfaits du discours pédagogique: échec scolaire et redoublement vus par les enseignants, Education et Recherche, 13, pp. 255–272.
37.
ReynaC. & WeinerB. (2001) Justice and Utility in the Classroom: An attributional analysis of the goals of teachers' punishment and intervention strategies, Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, pp. 309–319.
38.
RoderickM. (1994) Grade Retention and School Dropout: Investigating the association, American Educational Research Journal, 31, pp. 729–759.
39.
RustJ.O. & WallaceK.A. (1993) Effects of Grade Retention for Four Years, Journal of Instructional Psychology, 20, pp. 162–166.
40.
SaferD.J. (1986) Nonpromotion Correlates and Outcomes at Different Grade Levels, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, pp. 500–503.
41.
SchuepbachM. (2002) Grade Retention — a measure dealing with school failure: An analysis of efficiency on academic achievement, paper presented at the European Educational Research Conference, Lisbon, 11–14 September 2002.
42.
TomchinE.M. & ImparaJ.C. (1992) Unraveling Teachers' Beliefs about Grade Retention, American Educational Research Journal, 29, pp. 199–223.
43.
Vasquez-LevyD. (1993) The Use of Practical Arguments in Clarifying and Changing Practical Reasoning and Classroom Practices: Two cases, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 25, pp. 125–143.
44.
WangM.C.HaertelG.D. & WalbergH.J. (1993) Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning, Review of Educational Research, 63, pp. 249–294.
45.
WeinerB. (2000) Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Theories of Motivation from an Attributional Perspective, Educational Psychology Review, 12, pp. 1–14.
