Using a new methodological tool, the authors analyzed a large number of texts on information and communication technology (ICT) and education, and identified three clusters of views that guide educationists ‘in the field’ and in more academic contexts. The clusters reflect different fundamental assumptions on ICT and education. The authors argue that these clusters represent three different paradigms, which they term the technocrat, the reformist and the holistic. They further argue that despite the burgeoning literature on the merger of ICT and education, discourse between the three paradigms is surprisingly limited. Given the doubtful results of the computerization of education, they suggest that identification of these paradigms would promote an essential discussion, vital for better future policies.
References
1.
AdamsS. (2000) Computer-based Cooperative, Collaborative and Individual Learning: A report of research, in SparksK. E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
2.
AnastasiouV.AthanasopoulosC.SarrisM.SavasS.SotiriouS.A.ToliasV. (2000) The School of Tomorrow: A school open to the world, examples of elements of good practice, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
3.
AthanasopoulosC.ApostolakisE.EisenbarthP.KalkanisG.T.LewinskyH.SarrisM.M.SavasS.SotiriouS.A.SperkaM.StemmlerH.ToliasV.WolfG. (2000) Implementation of Scientific Methodology and Modeling Tools in an Open Classroom (Ages 10–17), in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
4.
AviramA. (1996) The Decline of the Modernistic Paradigm in Education, International Review of Education, 42, pp. 421–443.
5.
AviramA. (1999) Navigating through the Storm – education in postmodern democratic society. Tel Aviv: Masada Publishing (n Hebrew; English translation forthcoming).
6.
AviramA. (2000) The Integration of ICT and Education: From ‘computers in the classroom’ to mindful radical adaptation of education systems to the emerging cyber culture, Journal of Educational Change, 1, pp. 331–352.
7.
AviramA.ComayO. (2000) From ‘Computers in the Classroom’ to the Critical Radical Adaptation of Educational Systems to the New Emerging ICT Culture, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
8.
Bangert-DrownsR.L. (1993) The Word Processor as an Instructional Tool: A meta-analysis of word processing in writing instruction, Review of Educational Research, 63, pp. 93–96.
9.
BessagnetM.N.NodenotT. (2000) Specification of Platforms for Distance Learning, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
10.
BijkerW.HughersT.P.PinchT. (Eds) (1987) Social Construction of Technological Systems: New directions in the sociology and history of technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11.
BocconiS.PozziF. (2000) An Online Tutor Communication Model, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
12.
BreuerJ. (2000) Supporting Learners and Teachers in Handling the Didactical and Organizational Innovations of Telematics-based Education by the Use of Learning Contracts, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
13.
BrøggerØ.GjørlingU. (2000) The Pedagogical ICT-driver's Licenses: A Danish national initiative to raise teachers' ICT competencies, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
14.
ChojnackiJ.C.FleszarE. (2000) Causes for the Implementation of a Didactic Innovation in the Ecological and Environmental Education, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
15.
CifuentesL.MurphyK.L. (2000) Murals: Artifacts from an international telecommunications project, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
16.
DeweyJ. (1952) Democracy and Education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan.
17.
DillenbourgP. (1999) Collaborative-learning: Cognitive and computational approaches. Oxford: Elsevier.
18.
DochevD.YoshinovR.PavlovR. (2000) An Open Distributed Computer Environment for Educational Telematics, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
19.
DornischM.M.LandS.M. (2000) A Conceptual Framework for the Construction of Multiple Perspectives in Collaborative Environments, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
20.
EllulJ. (1965) The Technological Society. London: Jonathan Cape.
21.
EllulJ. (1998) Jacques Ellul on Religion, Technology and Politics. Atlanta: Scholars Press.
22.
EskenaziA.AssenovaP. (2000) The Bulgarian National Educational Strategy for Information and Communication Technologies and its Implication for School Level Education, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
23.
EUN, European Schoolnet (2000) Proceedings of the EUN Conference, Learning in the New Millennium, Brussels, March 20–21.
24.
FigueirasL.FortunyJ.M. (2000) Distance Learning at Secondary Levels: Contexts and norms for the learning of mathematics, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
25.
ForcheriP.MolfinoM.T.QuaratiA. (2000) The Influence of Technology on Educational Interactions, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
26.
GalbraithJ. (2000) Digital Scotland – a small nation with large ambitions, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
27.
GaneshT.G.MiddletonJ.A. (2000) Language as Access to Mathematics Learning and Technology in a Title I School, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
28.
GuerinE.M.C. (2000) An Answer to Training Needs for New Professional Figures in Tuscany in the Multimedia Technology Era, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
29.
HargreavesA. (1997) Racing with the Clock: Making time for teaching and learning in school reform. New York: Teachers' College Press.
30.
CallatayC. Hermant-De (2000) Future Developments in Schools, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
31.
InelmenE. (2000) Training Teachers for Open Classroom Collaborative Work, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
32.
Information Society Directorate General of the European Commission & Finnish National Technology Agency (1999) Summary Proceedings, Information Society Technologies, Conference and Exhibition, Helsinki, November 22–24.
33.
IzsóL.HercegfiK. (2000) Interface: A methodology for assessing quality of educational multimedia products developed in the frame of a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
34.
JiménezJ.M. (2000) Towards a School in the Information Society, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
35.
JohnstonK.O'BrienJ. (2000) Students' Use of Instructional Management System (IMS) Software in Irish Second-level Schools, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
36.
KarroulisA.PombortsisA. (2000) Evaluating the Usability of Multimedia Educational Software for Use in the Classroom Using a ‘Combinatory Evaluation’ Approach, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
37.
KastisN., (Ed.) (2000) Open Classrooms in the Digital Age: Cyberschools, e-learning and the scope of (r-)evolution, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
38.
KoivistoJ. (2000) Experiences in Building the National Virtual School for K-12 Education in Finland, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
39.
KoszalkaT.A.GrabowskiB.L.McCarthyM. (2000a) Web-enhanced Learning Environment Strategies: Integrating NASA web resources into science instruction, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
40.
KoszalkaT.A.PrichavudhiA.GrabowskiB.L. (2000b) The Validation of a Measurement Instrument: Teachers' attitudes towards the use of web resources in the classroom, across two cultures, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
41.
KristmundsonG.JeppesenK.MicheliadouM.GuttornP.HansenO. (2000) Indicators of the Open, Innovative and Inclusive School, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
42.
KylämäM.SilanderP. (2000) Constructing Information Society in Education – the model of ICT Learning Centre, in Proceedings of the EDEN fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
43.
LeaM. (2000) A Tutor's Role, More than Counseling?, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
44.
LehA.S.C. (2000) The Impact of the Technology Course on In-service Teachers, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
45.
LimB.YuB.M. (2000) Effects of Learning Via Web Design Approach on the Students' Perception, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division. Long Beach CA.
46.
LoveM.BanksS. (2000) Reaching the Masses – using digital interactive television to capture the interest of basic skills learners, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
47.
LöwenhielmK.Männikkö-BarbutiuS.SjögrundB. (2000) School Development in a Swedish Municipality – a long and winding road, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
48.
LytrasM.DoukidisG. (2000) The School of Tomorrow: Investigating the e-learning paradigm for national development, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
49.
MarksK.DobbeniA. (2000) The Classroom at a Distance: The challenge of children from traveler communities, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
50.
MaushakN.J.ChenK.T. (2000) Learners and the Learning Environment: Impact of technology use in K-12 schools in Iowa, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
51.
McCraryN. (2000) Affecting Socially Constructed Beliefs through Narrative Simulation, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
52.
McGarrO.O'BrienJ. (2000) An Investigation of Teachers' Use of IMS Software in Irish Second-level Schools: A case study, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
53.
MeighanR. (1997) The Next Learning System: And why home-schoolers are trailblazers. Nottingham: Educational Heretics Press.
54.
MidoroV. (2000) Building a Virtual School for In-service Teachers on Environmental Education, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
55.
MiltiadouM.SavenyeW.C. (2000) Applying Social Cognitive Constructs of Motivation to Enhance Student Success in Online Distance Education, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
56.
MüllerP.HubweiserP. (2000) Informatics as a Mandatory Subject at Secondary Schools in Bavaria, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
57.
Open University of Israel & European Commission (1999) Technology in Learning Environments: The learning citizen, Tel-Aviv, October.
58.
OppenheimerT. (1997) The Computer Delusion, Atlantic Monthly, 280, pp. 45–65.
59.
PapertS. (1980) Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books.
60.
PapertS. (1993) The Children's Machine: Rethinking school in the age of the computer. New York: Basic Books.
61.
PatrineliA.FitsiouG. (2000) Interdisciplinary Projects with Cross Curricular and Team Teaching: An experiment from one classroom to open classrooms through the web, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
62.
PelgrumW.J.AndersonR.E. (Eds) (1999) ICT and the Emerging Paradigm for Life Long Learning: A worldwide educational assessment of infrastructure, goals and practices. Enschede: Printpartners Ipskamp.
63.
PerelmanL.J. (1992) School's Out: A radical new formula for the revitalization of America's educational system. New York: Avon.
64.
PlompT.J.AndersonR.E.LawN.QualeA. (Eds) (2003) Cross National Policies and Practices on ICT in Education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
65.
PostmanN. (1992) Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Knopf.
66.
PostmanN. (1995) The End of Education: Redefining the value of school. New York: Knopf.
67.
PreissK. (1999) Communication Technology, the Internet and the Future of Education, in AviramA.RichardsonA. (Eds) Proceedings of the First Israeli Seminar on Pedagogical and Educational Systems: Guiding visions for the 21th century (Jerusalem, July). Beer-Sheva: Center for Futurism in Education.
68.
RavitchD. (1985) The Schools we Deserve: Reflections on the educational crises of our times. New York: Basic Books.
69.
ReynoldsS.VanbuelM.MarksK. (2000) Trapeze: Using a two-way satellite network for education purposes, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
70.
RiffelA.LevinB. (1997) Schools Coping with the Impact of Information Technology, Educational Management and Administration, 25, pp. 51–64.
71.
Roberts & Associates (1999) Professional Development and Learning Technologies: Needs, issues, trends and activities [Le perfectionnement professionnel et les technologies d'apprentissage: Besoins, problems, tendances et activities]. Report prepared for the Canadian Alliance of Education and Training Organizations Office of Learning Technologies and Human Resources Development Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada.
72.
RubioA.CarrerasM. (2000) ‘How we Were’ – a web site of the social history of childhood made by children multimedia for kids – MEDIAKIDS, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
73.
ScardamaliaM.BereiterC.BrettC.BurtisP.J.CalhounC.LeaN. Smith (1992) Educational Applications of Networked Communal Database, Interactive Learning Environments, 2, pp. 45–71.
74.
SidiropoulouA. (2000) Introducing Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Primary Schools: The Faiakes project, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
75.
SøbyM. (2000) Innovations and Changes in the Norwegian School Education Systems, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
76.
SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) (2000) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
77.
StaudenmaierJ.M. (1985) Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the human fabric. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/London: Society for the History of Technology.
78.
SternerR. (2000) ICT at School – not for everybody, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
79.
TiessenE.L.WardD.R. (1998) Creating Shared Understanding through Distributed Learning, in BergeZ.CollinsM. (Eds) Wired Together: The online classroom in K-12. Vol. 1, Perspectives and Instructional Design, pp. 175–184. Cresskill: Hampton.
80.
TsolakidisC. (2000) Introduction of Information Technology in Primary Schools of Small Islands, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
81.
WhiteJ.P. (1997) Education and the End of Work. London: Cassell.
82.
WilhaukP. (2000) A Theoretical Model for the Study of Virtual Reality in Education, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
83.
WoodE.WilloughbyT.SprechtJ. (1998) What's Happening with Computer Technology in Early Childhood Education Settings?Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18, pp. 237–243.
84.
WuY.S. (2000) Instructional Design for Discourse in Mathematical Inquiry, in SparksK.E.SimonsonM. (Eds) 22nd Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Papers Presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (Long Beach).
85.
YatchouR.TanghaC.GouradèresG. (2000) User Assessment and Learner Tracking Agent Layer in an Internet Training Tool, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
86.
ZijlstraW.G.TaconisP. (2000) E-Education and Learner Support: A new approach, in Proceedings of the EDEN Fourth Open Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain, November 19–21.
