Promoting Awareness of Sounds in Speech (PASS): The Effects of Intervention and Stimulus Characteristics on the Blending Performance of Preschool Children with Communication Impairments
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online May, 2006
Promoting Awareness of Sounds in Speech (PASS): The Effects of Intervention and Stimulus Characteristics on the Blending Performance of Preschool Children with Communication Impairments
The primary purpose of this study was to demonstrate the efficacy of the blending portion of the Promoting Awareness of Sounds in Speech (PASS) program, a comprehensive and explicit phonological awareness intervention curriculum designed for preschool children with speech and language impairments. A secondary purpose was to examine the effects of stimulus characteristics on responsiveness to the phonological awareness intervention via post-hoc analysis. A single-subject design was used to examine treatment effects among children with varying levels of communicative abilities. The PASS blending module was implemented with 11 children with speech and/or language impairments, following the establishment of a stable pretreatment baseline on a series of phonological awareness probes.
After instruction, the children demonstrated substantial improvement in their blending ability, which appeared to be attributable to the intervention rather than environmental or maturational factors. These findings suggest that PASS blending training was an effective approach to phonological awareness instruction for the preschoolers with disabilities in our sample. Additionally, word frequency and neighborhood density were found to influence performance on some phonological awareness tasks. Specifically, children correctly blended high-frequency words more than low-frequency words, but they correctly blended words from lower-density neighborhoods more than words from higher-density neighborhoods. Findings are discussed with respect to predictions of the lexical restructuring hypothesis.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AdamsM.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2.
BishopD.M.AdamsC. (1990). A prospective study of the relationship between specific language impairment, phonological disorders, and reading retardation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 1027–1050.
3.
ByrneB.Fielding-BarnsleyR. (1991). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 451–455.
4.
ByrneB.Fielding-BarnsleyR. (1993). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 104–111.
5.
ByrneB.Fielding-BarnsleyR. (1995). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2- and 3-year follow-up and a new preschool trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 488–503.
6.
CarrollJ.B.DaviesP.RichmanB. (1971). The American Heritage word frequency book. New York: American Heritage Publishing.
7.
CattsH.W. (1993). The relationship between speech-language impairments and reading disabilities. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 948–958.
8.
DeCaraB.GoswamiU. (2002). Similarity relations among spoken words: The special status of rimes in English. Behavior Research Methods: Instruments and Computers, 34, 416–423.
9.
DollaghanC.A. (1994). Children's phonological neighborhoods: Half empty or half full?Journal of Child Language, 21, 257–271.
10.
DunnL.M.DunnL.M. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
11.
FaithM.S.AllisonD.B.GormanB.S. (1996). Meta-analysis of single-case research. In FranklinR.D.AllisonD.B.GormanB.S. (Eds.), Design and analysis of single-case research (pp. 245–277). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.)
12.
FeyM.CattsH.W.LarriveeL. (1995). Preparing preschoolers for the academic and social challenges of school. In FeyM.WindsorJ.WarrenS. (Eds.), Language intervention: Preschool through the elementary years (pp. 3–37). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.)
13.
FletcherJ.M.ShaywitzS.E.ShankweilerD.P.KatzL.LibermanI.Y.SteubingK.K.FrancisD.J.FowlerA.E.ShaywitzB.A. (1994). Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 6–23.
14.
FoormanB.R.FrancisD.J.FletcherJ.M.SchatschneiderC.MehtaP. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37–55.
15.
FoxB.RouthD.K. (1976). Phonemic analysis and synthesis as word-attack skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 70–74.
16.
GardnerM.F. (1985). Test of Auditory-Perceptual Skills. Burlingame, CA: Psychological and Educational Publications.
17.
GentryJ.R.GilletJ.W. (1993). Teaching kids to spell. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman.
18.
GermanD.J.NewmanR.S. (2004). The impact of lexical factors on children's word-finding errors. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 624–636.
19.
GillinghamA.StillmanW. (1992). The Gillingham manual. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.
20.
GillionG.T. (2000). The efficacy of phonological awareness intervention for children with spoken language impairment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 31, 126–141.
21.
GillionG.T. (2002). Follow-up study investigating the benefits of phonological awareness intervention for children with spoken language impairment. International Journal of Communication Disorders, 37, 381–400.
22.
GoldmanR.FristoeM. (1969). Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
23.
GoughP.B.TunmerW.E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7 (1), 6–10.
24.
HartB.RisleyT.R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
25.
HeskethA.AdamsC.NightingaleC.HallR. (2000). Phonological awareness therapy and articulatory training approaches for children with phonological disorders: A comparative outcome study. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 35, 337–354.
26.
LarriveeL.CattsH.W. (1999). Early reading achievement in children with expressive phonological disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 8 (2), 137–148.
27.
LeonardL.B. (1998). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
28.
LewisB.A.FreebairnL.A.TaylorH.G. (2000). Follow-up of children with early expressive phonology disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 433–444.
29.
LoganJ.S. (1992). A computational analysis of young children's lexicons. Research on speech perception (Technical Report No. 8). Bloomington: Indiana University, Speech Research Laboratory.
30.
LuceP.A. (1986). Neighborhoods of words in the mental lexicon. Research on speech perception (Technical Report No. 6). Bloomington: Indiana University, Speech Research Laboratory.
MagnussonE.NauclerK. (1993). The development of linguistic awareness in language-disordered children. First Language, 13, 93–111.
33.
MajorE.M.BernhardtB.H. (1998). Metaphonological skills of children with phonological disorders before and after phonological and metaphonological intervention. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 33, 413–444.
34.
MetsalaJ.L. (1999). Young children's phonological awareness and nonword repetition as a function of vocabulary development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 3–19.
35.
MetsalaJ.L.WalleyA.C. (1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and segmental restructuring of lexical representations: Precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In MetsalaJ.L.EhriL.C. (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 89–120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.)
36.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
37.
NewcomerP.HammillD. (1997). Test of Language Development-Primary (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
38.
NewmanR.S.GermanD.J. (2002). Effects of lexical factors on lexical access among typical language-learning children and children with word-finding difficulties. Language and Speech, 45, 285–317.
39.
PerfettiC.A.BeckI.BellL.HughesC. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283–319.
40.
PollowayE.A.PattonJ.R.SernaL. (2001). Strategies for teaching learners with special needs (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
41.
PullenP.C.JusticeL.M. (2003). Enhancing phonological awareness, print awareness, and oral language skills in preschool children. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 87–98.
42.
PylkkanenL.StringfellowA.MarantzA. (2002). Neuromagnetic evidence for the timing of lexical activation: An MEG component sensitive to phonotactic probability but not to neighborhood density. Brain & Language, 81, 666–678.
43.
ReidD.K.HreskoW.P.HammillD. (1989). Test of Early Reading Ability (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
44.
RosnerJ.SimonD.P. (1971). The Auditory Analysis Test: An initial report. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 384392.
45.
RothF.P.SpeeceD.L.CooperD.H. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the connection between oral language and early reading. Journal of Educational Research, 95, 259–272.
46.
RothF.P.TroiaG.A.WorthingtonC.K.DowK.A. (2002). Promoting awareness of sounds in speech: An initial report of an early intervention program for children with speech and language impairments. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 535–565.
47.
ScarboroughH.S. (1990). Very early language deficits in dyslexic children. Child Development, 61, 1728–1743.
48.
SlocumT.A.O'ConnorR.E.JenkinsJ.R. (1993). Transfer among phonological manipulation skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 618–630.
49.
SnowC.E.BurnsM.S.GriffinP. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.)
50.
StorkelH.L. (2001). Learning new words: Phonotactic probability in language development. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 44, 1321–1337.
51.
StorkelH.L. (2002). Restructuring of similarity neighbourhoods in the developing mental lexicon. Journal of Child Language, 29, 251–274.
52.
StorkelH.L. (2004). Do children acquire dense neighborhoods? An investigation in lexical acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 201–221.
53.
TallalP.CurtissS.KaplanR. (1988). The San Diego longitudinal study: Evaluating the outcomes of preschool impairment in language development. In GerberS.E.MencherG.T. (Eds.), International perspectives in communication disorders (pp. 86–126). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.)
54.
TawneyJ.W.GastD.L. (1984). Single subject research in special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
55.
TorgesenJ.K. (2000). Individual differences in response to early interventions in reading: The lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15, 55–64.
56.
TorgesenJ.K.MorganS.DavisC. (1992). The effects of two types of phonological awareness training on word learning in kindergarten children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 364–370.
57.
TorgesenJ.K.WagnerR.K.RashotteC.A. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276–286.
58.
TroiaG.A. (1999). Phonological awareness intervention research: A critical review of the experimental methodology. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 28–52.
59.
TroiaG.A.RothF.P.GrahamS. (1998). An educator's guide to phonological awareness: Assessment measures and intervention activities for children. (3), 1–12.
60.
TroiaG.A.RothF.P.Yeni-KomshianG.H. (1996). Word frequency and age effects in normally developing children's phonological processing. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1099–1108.
61.
U.S. Department of Education. (1997). Nineteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
62.
van KleeckA.GillamR.B.McFaddenT.U. (1998). A study of classroom-based phonological awareness training for preschoolers with speech and/or language disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7 (3), 65–76.
63.
van KleeckA.SchueleC.M. (1987). Precursors to literacy: Normal development. Topics in Language Disorders, 7, 13–31.
64.
WagnerR.K.TorgesenJ.K.LaughonP.SimmonsK.RashotteC.A. (1993). Development of young readers' phonological processing abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 83–103.
65.
WebsterP.E.PlanteA.S. (1992). Effects of phonological impairment on word, syllable, and phoneme segmentation and reading. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 176–182.
66.
WebsterP.E.PlanteA.S. (1995). Productive phonology and phonological awareness in preschool children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, 43–57.
67.
WiigE.SecordW.SemelE. (1992). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Preschool. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
68.
WilliamsK.T. (1997). Expressive Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
