Coachees’ Experiences of Integrating a Self-Selected Soundtrack into a one-off Coaching Session

Abstract

Artistic media use in coaching has received growing interest in recent years with increased research and encouraging results. Music benefits wellbeing, aids new perspectives, and enhances embodiment, however, research on the use of music in coaching is limited. This study thematically analysed participants’ reflective texts (N=12) relating to their experience of a one-off coaching session that integrated a self-selected piece of music as a soundtrack related to the session topic. Results support previous literature on the subject, while also providing new findings that the soundtrack primed thinking for the session and was a motivational reminder of the session.

Keywords

self-selected music goal-oriented meaning-making embodied coaching qualitative research

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the integration of music into a coaching session through participants’ reflected experience of using a self-selected soundtrack in connection with the session topic. The limited research on arts in coaching (e.g., Sheather, 2019; Humphrey & Tomlinson, 2020) and even fewer on the specific use of music in coaching (e.g., McManus & Giraldez-Hayes, 2021; Klyk, Palmer & Zimmermann, 2022), suggest this research is needed and relevant. An interest in metaphor, figurative language in both music and coaching, and meaning-making, forged the study concept. Since highly pleasurable music increases connectivity in the brain (Harrison & Loui, 2014), the incorporation of general art in coaching increases hemispherical lateralisation (Sheather, 2019), and background music primes creativity and idea generation (Minas & Dennis, 2019), this study intended to explore whether music in a coaching session would activate creative thinking, processing, and problem-solving. The study aimed to explore relevant themes from the participants’ reflections of the session to provide insight into their engagement with the piece of music in the session and its impact.

The overall aims of coaching can be summarised as embodied. For example, establishing desired outcomes and/or directions, increasing motivation, and creating action plans. Coaching methods such as Co-active Coaching have utilised somatics for creative visualisations with role play (Longhurst, 2006). When the body is recognized in coaching, it can help access knowledge, memories, and bring about new patterns of response (Matthews, 2013). With the use of somatics in coaching increasing, coaching could benefit from more embodied processes to help further facilitate these aims. The following report explores the novel integration of self-selected music in a coaching session, offering a potential element to use in embodied coaching.

Literature

Coaching’s aims, elements, and connection to embodiment

Coaching psychology has become a growing field within the last two decades with increased research. The aim for many coachees is to reach goals, to increase self-awareness, performance, wellbeing, and motivation, and to create change or explore obstacles and ways to overcome them. Goals motivate individuals to attain specific, future valued outcomes (Locke & Latham, 2006; Loizou, Karageorghis & Bishop, 2014). Through collaborative learning, a coach can provide feedback; a moderator of goal setting (Locke & Latham, 2006), by offering observations and maintaining a client-centred approach.

The aims of coaching can be facilitated by the cultivation of meaning-making, metaphor, and creativity, in a session. Metaphor is the expression of one thing in terms of another through image schemas: mental structures grounded in embodied human experiences from childhood (Schaerlaeken, Glowinski, Rappaz & Grandjean, 2019; Thompson, 2021). Since metaphor is embodied, it is believed to be a route to the unconscious (Emson, 2016). Metaphor is used for many different processes in coaching, such as goal setting, challenging, and visualizing desirable outcomes (Thompson, 2021), and is also commonly found in music (e.g., Johnson & Larson, 2003; Emson, 2016; Schaerlaeken et al., 2019).

Coaching has begun to incorporate embodiment over the last decade as an avenue to support coachees in making behavioural shifts (Attan, Whitelaw & Ferguson, 2018). Embodiment is defined as the sense of one’s own body which provides a somatic form of knowledge related to the sense of self (Longo, Schüür, Kammers, Tsakiris, & Haggard, 2008). Therefore, embodiment is specifically important for coaching’s aim of self-awareness. Embodiment is also involved in meaning-making because body movements are believed to create meaning (Johnson & Larson, 2003; Leman, 2010, Jackson, 2023). Metaphor’s embodied nature is supported by Emson’s (2016) claim that the attribution of meaning is a metaphorical process.

Music’s researched benefits and its connection to coaching

Music has been found to improve wellbeing and benefit the emotional state, or mood, of individuals who participate in music-making and/or music-listening (Loizou et al., 2014; Bernardi, Bellemare-Pepin & Peretz, 2018; Ji, Janicke-Bowles, De Leeuw & Oliver, 2019; Krause, North & Davidson, 2019; Terry, Karageorghis, Curran, Martin & Parsons-Smith, 2020). Music also benefits collective wellbeing by increasing feelings of safety, trust, and connectedness in young people (Caló, Steiner, Millar & Teasdale, 2020). Wellbeing is defined as an equilibrium between an individual’s physiological, social, and psychological resources and the challenges faced (Dodge, Daly, Huyton & Sanders, 2012).

Music engages motor networks in the brain (Schaefer, Morcom, Roberts & Overy, 2014), causes Pacinian corpuscles located in skin, bones, etc. to resonate (Koelsch, 2015), and supports gait speed through synchronization (Leow, Rinchon & Grahn, 2015), suggesting an interconnection between music and movement. Frisson, or goosebumps, is a psychophysiological response that encompasses the emotional intensity and tactile sensations induced by music (Harrison & Loui, 2014). This body movement commonly occurs with awe-eliciting, transcendent music that orients the listener towards others and the interconnectivity of humanity (Harrison & Loui, 2014; Ji et al., 2019).

Music’s relation to embodiment is explored in the field of embodied music cognition. This area emphasizes the contribution the human body has on the enjoyment or performance of music and suggests the body is influential in individuals’ emotional response, perception, and comprehension of music (Leman, Maes, Nijs & Van Dyck, 2018). Grounded in embodied experiences, music has been found to create meaning through context, perceived expressive intent, inherent musical structure, and body movement (Johnson & Larson, 2003; Leman, 2010; Schaerlaeken et al., 2019).

Synchronization with music extends beyond emotional and physical synchrony (Koelsch, 2015; Terry et al., 2020), to the creation of social synchrony such as bonds, comfort, and feelings of belonging as individuals’ states are synchronized together and empathy is increased (Leman, 2010; Koelsch, 2015; Marsh, 2019). Social dynamics, such as cohesion, empathy, and synchronization, are important to consider in coaching (Emson, 2016; McManus & Giraldez-Hayes, 2021).

Motivation has also been found to increase with music (Loizou et al., 2014; Chirico, Serino, Cipresso, Gaggioli & Riva, 2015), particularly awe-eliciting music mediated by inspiration (Ji et al., 2019). Awe-eliciting music increases motivation as a result of the individual becoming inspired to change their life’s focus onto meaningful endeavours (Ji et al., 2019). This is supported by findings that the experience of frisson, often associated with awe-eliciting music, activates the reward network of the brain (Harrison & Loui, 2014).

Music has been used to achieve goals such as regulating emotions, creating a diversion, and increasing social cohesion (Koelsch, 2015; Demetrious, Larson & Liem, 2016). With easier access to personalized music choices, individuals are increasingly using music to reach a desired state or goal (Loizou et al., 2014; Chirico et al., 2015; Demetrious et al., 2016). Goal setting and achievement are foundational to coaching. Through increased exposure music has become the art form the public is most familiar and comfortable with.

Self-selected Music

Self-selected means the music was chosen by the client or participant on their own accord, with instructions from the facilitator. There is limited research on the effect of self-selected music, likely due to many studies aimed at the analysis of specific types of music, but results are encouraging, suggesting flow-state is more prevalent and emotional state is greatly impacted (Biagini, Brown, Coburn, Judelson, Statler, Bottaro, Tran & Longo, 2012; Chirico et al., 2015). Biagini et al. found that self-selected music, compared to no music, helped athletes feel more empowered and increase performance (2012). Ideally, the control should have listened to predetermined music, chosen by the researcher, to further support the research question. In a sample of twenty-two Norwegian participants with long-term illness, self-selected music was found to prevent physical and mental pain, change mood, and increase wellbeing (Batt-Rawden, 2010). Of the limited research on the use of music in coaching (McManus & Giraldez-Hayes, 2021; Klyk et al., 2022), there has been no research thus far exploring the use of self-selected music.

Self-selected music is beneficial because it creates a perceived increase in three mood domains; positivity, present-mindedness, and arousal, due to a sense of control (Demetrious et al., 2016). Lynar, Cvejic, Schubert, and Vollmer-Conna found that self-selected music evoked the most joy compared to classical music, however, results might have been skewed due to instructions given to participants to choose an ‘uplifting song’ (2017, p. 122). Integration of self-selected music in applied settings is important because it decreases influence from the facilitator and potential aversions to the music (Koelsch, 2015). Additionally, familiar music has been found to inspire, motivate, and benefit emotional state due to the stronger and more personal effect (Ji et al., 2019). Alternatively, Stewart, Garrido, Hense, and McFerran found contradicting evidence, suggesting that music preferences of individuals with depression do not always align with wellbeing outcomes (2019). This was attributed to the individuals’ decreased self-awareness resulting in music choices that intensified depressive feelings.

The known benefit of self-selected music suggests the need for research on its use in coaching. The increased use of music to reach a ‘goal’ state, promotes its application in the field of coaching. This suggests coachees will be comfortable choosing and integrating music into the process of reaching a long-term goal. Integrating self-selected music into a coaching session puts the coachee in control, maintains a client-centred approach, and a unique process for each coachee.

The Bonny Method

The Bonny Method, a form of music therapy, was influential to the design of this study, particularly the soundtrack questions asked during the sessions (Abbott, 2005; Jerling & Heyns, 2020). The Bonny Method was developed by Helen Bonny in the 1970s and used during personal growth and transformational therapy (Abbott, 2005). The method utilized predetermined, Western-classical music that supported clients through a relaxed and meditative state. After the meditation, a therapist asked clients what images and feelings were evoked from the music as the client drew or traced a mandala (Jerling & Heyns, 2020).

Clinical populations are the sample for many studies using the Bonny Method (McKinney & Honig, 2016; Jerling & Heyns, 2020), however, the Bonny Method focuses on solving problems (Jerling & Heyns, 2020), which is an objective of coaching. Patients in clinical studies of guided imagery and music have also experienced physiological improvement (McKinney & Honig, 2016), which supports music’s embodied elements. The current study differs from most Bonny Method studies in that the sample was not clinical, integrated music was self-selected, and most soundtracks contained lyrics.

Critique of previous literature and how the current study addresses suggestions and gaps

Literature on the general use of art in coaching, specifically music, is limited and recent (Sheather, 2019; Humphrey & Tomlinson, 2020; Turner, 2020; McManus & Giraldez-Hayes, 2021; Klyk et al., 2022). This suggests that coaching with music is a new and emerging topic of interest that warrants further empirical study.

The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate, through qualitative analysis of participant reflected experience, the use of music in coaching for metaphor exploration, creativity priming, and meaning-making. The research takes a novel approach, with the coach and coachee together listening to the self-selected piece of music at the start of the session and integrating it into the discussion. The advantage of using music is that established metaphor within the soundtrack provides imagery that the coachee connects with but may not consciously use. Building upon this metaphor can facilitate further discussion of the topic.

The current study addresses Ji et al.’s (2019) suggestion to use inspiring music, which is closely related to creativity, efficiency, and productivity, in the workplace or other relevant settings with a specific and actionable format, i.e., coaching. A gap in the research on the combination of arts and coaching is the use of predetermined music in supervision sessions, rather than self-selected music for a general coaching session (e.g., McManus & Giraldez-Hayes; 2021). Another gap is the use of predetermined music prior to a coaching session, rather than integration into the session (e.g., Klyk et al., 2022).

Whilst there is limited research on the use of music in coaching, the relation between music’s benefits and its application to coaching are numerous. Therefore, further research should explore how self-selected music can be integrated into a coaching session and what the outcomes or experiences are. The current study addresses this need: it questions what is the reflected coachee experience of using a self-selected soundtrack during a coaching session and aims to provide participants with the opportunity to integrate music into a coaching session and explore the themes of their experience through reflective text.

Methodology

Data collection followed a mixed-methods approach, with a valid and reliable musicality scale and written reflective texts. Data analysis followed a qualitative approach with reflexive thematic analysis (Percy, Kostere & Kostere, 2015). Reflexive thematic analysis was the chosen for this study because of the recruited sample size. The data collected was textual and the study question was interested in participants’ experience of a curated event by the researcher as opposed to a naturally occurring event, and the interest was in analysing what was said rather than how it was said (Percy et al, 2015).

Additionally, reflexive thematic analysis was chosen because the researcher was also the coach. This structure of roles is a potential bias of the study’s design; however, this bias was limited by asking standard questions about the piece of music and keeping this bias in mind during each sessions and analysis. The methodology chosen increases the researcher’s awareness of their influence on sessions, as the researcher reflected after each session and was mindful of not asking leading questions. This dual role was important as it allowed the researcher to continue their practice of coaching and be fully integrated as a contributor to the study.

It was not the intent of this study to go deep into each participant’s experience. Since this is the first study of its kind, data collection and analysis were broad and more general to allow for exploration and emergence of the unknown. The thematic analysis undertook an inductive and semantic approach. After the researcher became familiar with the reflective texts through notetaking, highlighting, and coding, the data was organized into broad themes that were repeated in the texts (Coates, Jordan & Clarke, 2021).

The data analysed includes participants’ written reflective text submitted through a survey, with support from field notes. The qualitative data was analysed in Microsoft Word, making use of the search function and highlighting codes typed to the right of the text.

Participants

The total number of participants for this study was twelve, (N=12) (Female = 10, Male = 2). Participant ages ranged from 23 to 65 years old (M = 44.6, SD = 11.1). Nationality and country lived in during formative childhood were diverse (UK, USA, Canada, Australia, Italy, India, Japan, Poland, Romania, and Zambia). The participant sample was musical, but not highly scoring on the musicality scale, with a general musical sophistication factor of M = 74.3, SD = 20.3. Participants were recruited through social media posts and other online networks, such as LinkedIn and Facebook, and volunteered interest.

Nine participants were coaches themselves. Three participants experienced being coached for the first time. One participant had previously been coached by the researcher.

Eligibility criteria for this study were minimal. Participants needed to be 18 years of age or older and not currently in therapy, seeking therapy, or taking mental health medication. The musicality scale was not used as a selection criterion. Participants were not compensated for their contribution to this study.

Materials

The Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index was used to measure musicality of the participants for descriptive purpose (Müllensiefen, Gingras, Musil & Stewart, 2014). Dimensions of the scale have validities between Cronbach’s alpha of 0.857 and 0.972 (Müllensiefen et al., 2014). This scale was collected as a demographic descriptor for the participant sample and the results will not be discussed in this paper.

Two anonymous Qualtrics survey links were distributed to participants. One before the session for completion of the musicality scale, and one after the session to submit the reflective text. The reflective texts submitted by the participants were open-ended and prefaced with the following prompt: “Please consider all aspects of the session, such as the incorporation of the chosen “soundtrack”, session learnings, insights, outcomes, challenges, etc. and provide as much detail as possible. Please consider the prompts if needed: 1. What was your experience of the coaching session, overall?, 2. How did the chosen “soundtrack” impact the session?, 3. What was the outcome/result of the session?”

Procedure

After participants were recruited and the signed consent form was received, the 10-minute musicality survey was completed through the provided link prior to attending the coaching session. Participants were instructed to pick a familiar song that represented or was connected to their topic for the session. The topic for coaching was decided upon by the participant and then emailed to the researcher/coach before the session, to ensure it was coaching relevant. The soundtrack title and artist were also sent prior to the session so the researcher was familiar with it.

All aspects of this study were completed online. The coaching sessions were scheduled for 90-minutes and completed virtually either with Microsoft Teams video call (10) or Zoom video call (2). At the beginning of the session, there was a brief introduction and contracting to establish a similar foundation and expectation for all participants. Before listening to the song in full, participants were welcomed to move, react, or respond to the music and play or reference the song again at any point in the session. Two participants played the song again. Two standard questions were asked of the participants after listening to the song; ‘why did you choose this song as the soundtrack for the session topic?’ and ‘how does the song connect to the session topic?’, then discussion about the topic began. The coaching approach taken followed a goal oriented, solutions-focused, and person-centred approach. The coach upheld the belief that the coachee had the ability and answers within them to reach their goal. A Positive Psychology coaching approach was also used. Additionally, questions such as “where is that felt in your body?”, were used in response to emotions or feelings mentioned, thus using a somatic approach. After about an hour of topic discussion, depending on the pace of the session, three more standard questions were asked; ‘what images are brought to mind from the song?’, ‘what feelings does the song evoke?’, ‘what phrases stand out to you in the song?’. These questions were inspired by the Bonney method of music therapy which focuses on images and feelings evoked from the music and the parts of the song that were impactful. References made to the soundtracks throughout the session varied with each participant. The coaching sessions were not recorded; however, copious field notes were taken which were used to support the participants’ submitted reflective text. Reflective text was used instead of transcription of the session to allow time for the participants to process and to prevent deterring participants who might not want to be recorded for anonymity.

Participants were informed before and during the session that they would be asked to reflect for about 45 minutes within 24 hours after the session. Participants were instructed to complete the reflection digitally, or hand-write and then re-type, to submit the final version. Participants were encouraged to reflect without prompts and then use the provided prompts if needed. One participant submitted a transcribed version of an audio reflection. This reflection was analysed with all other reflections; however, it differed in length, structure, and content compared to the other typed or hand-written reflections.

This study was conducted under the approval of the University of East London School of Psychology Research Ethics Committee, in accordance with declared procedure and codes of ethics.

Results

Through reflexive thematic analysis, the following major and minor themes were synthesised from participants’ submitted reflections and support from field notes. The three major, and corresponding minor themes, from the data related to the research question are:

Table 1

Corresponding major and minor themes from reflective texts

Major Themes	Minor Themes
1. Soundtrack as a Tool	1.1 soundtrack primed session thinking 1.2 soundtrack as a motivational reminder 1.3 soundtrack develops new insights 1.4 soundtrack helps verbalize 1.5 metaphor and lyrical exploration are valuable
2. An Emotional Experience	2.1 energised feeling 2.2 soundtrack impacts emotional state 2.3 creative thinking and clarity attained 2.4 discomfort from sharing and listening to the soundtrack together
3. An Embodied Experience	3.1 aware of bodily response 3.2 meaning arose 3.3 movement and direction occurred 3.4 soundtrack choice is intuitive

1. Soundtrack As a Tool

All participants mentioned that their soundtrack was a vital part of the session which aided and impacted many different aspects.

1.1 Soundtrack primed session thinking

The soundtrack had an impact before the session, by preparing participants for the conversation. The request to pre-choose and send a soundtrack related to the topic caused participants to think further about their topic and how the chosen piece connects.

First, by asking us to select a song in line with what we want to bring to the coaching conversation, the coaching started even before the actual meeting! I found myself wondering what I wanted to talk about and from there, what song would reflect it and why (PT001).

1.2 Soundtrack as a motivational reminder

The most prominent minor theme was that participants had a positive tie to the soundtrack that allowed the soundtrack to have a lingering impact after the session and reinforce insights. Participants mentioned that:

[…] listening to the song after the session, also had an impact, as it made me re-think about the discussion during the session, the points covered as well as the resolutions I made to myself (PT008).

Thus, the soundtrack acts as a reinforcement for the session outcomes and a reminder of the discussion. Participants anticipate they will listen to the soundtrack again for motivation towards their goal. For example,

As a result of the session I feel that my business has a soundtrack, and whenever my motivation is fading I can recall the song and be reminded of my goals (PT002).

1.3 Soundtrack develops new insights

Some participants reflected that the soundtrack itself was the insight that was useful during the session, while another stated “not only the song impacted the entire mood of the session, but […] also the discoveries I made throughout the session” (PT008), implying the soundtrack only impacted the insights. Many participants had new thoughts and solutions for the topic or new insights about themselves during sessions.

1.4 Soundtrack helps verbalize

Not only was the language of the soundtrack impactful, but the soundtrack in general helped describe the topic. The soundtrack was used to express the ideas, feelings, struggles, etc. the coachee had which they were unable to verbalize. For example, “the presence of the song was almost a liberation as it could explain certain things that I had a hard time verbalizing myself” (PT001). Additionally,

Having a soundtrack for the session really did focus my mind on the issue I've been struggling with and provided an insight as to the key problem I hadn't been able to verbalise […]. The track got to the heart of the issue […] (PT002).

This influence of phrases in the soundtrack, and other elements such as sound imagery, provided a tangible and metaphorical way for participants to understand and express the topic further.

1.5 Metaphor and lyrical exploration are valuable

Metaphor uniquely expressed by a coachee, or derived from the soundtrack, was elaborated upon with further questions. Some participants found that working with metaphor in the soundtrack helped them think about their topic through a new lens. For example,

linking the relationship theme of the song to my relationship with singing [topic] made me think about it more strategically and provided a useful metaphor to work with (PT006).

In addition to exploring the phrases which stood out in the soundtrack during the session, some participants prepared for the session by looking at the lyrics more closely and considering their meaning. From this in-depth look and further discussion during the session more meaning was brought to light, as PT012 describes:

I also found, when we talked about the lyrics during the session, that there was more meaning coming out of the lyrics as I talked about them and reflected on them. In other words, the act of reflecting on the lyrics during the coaching session was itself valuable (PT012).

Overall, the soundtrack as a whole became a metaphor for the topic and inclusion of which provided a unique way for metaphor and meaning to be developed.

2. An Emotional Experience

Many participants commented on the feelings or emotional state they experienced from the soundtrack or the session in general.

2.1 Energised feeling

Some participants described the outcome of the session as productive due to tangible action steps or insights attained. Others stated that the session overall had a positive feeling.

I don't consider myself a very musical person and I was on the fence about how much I would be able to get out of the experience because of it. I was quite surprised to feel a great sense of joy during the session (PT001).

Interestingly, two participants who spoke explicitly of an embodied experience from the session and soundtrack also felt energised. For example:

[…] I found the soundtrack energising, immersive (the music wasn't out there, external to me, but was in me, or perhaps I was in it), resonating me with in a positive way, rather than jarring (PT012).

2.2 Soundtrack impacts emotional state

The soundtrack impacted participants’ emotional states, such as feeling calm, settled, and preventing fear. One participant mentioned that they felt “[…] stronger and more empowered and feel [a] strong believe [sic] in my own power, skills and ability to learn and develop” (PT003).

2.3 Creative thinking and clarity attained

Session outcomes for participants included: generation of new thinking, new possibilities, and new perspective. Some also expressed that the soundtrack allowed them to think more freely, giving them clarity and the feeling of contentment. PT002 reflected that the soundtrack opened their mind, creating a feeling of joy during the session that helped them think more creatively:

I found that having this revelation [highlighted by the soundtrack] opened my mind to so many more possibilities than I had seen before and brought a far greater joy into the process. By feeling genuine excitement I was more creative with the possibilities I came up with, as well as feeling like I was being more focused about what I needed to do (PT002).

2.4 Discomfort from sharing and listening to the soundtrack together

PT003 stated “it was a bit awkward for me at the beginning to listen to the music and being on video at the same time” (PT003). A couple other participants shared in this sentiment. Consequently, some participants closed their eyes while listening or did not react to the soundtrack in the same way they would if listening on their own. However, a diversion of this theme was noted by PT009:

[…] I think it would have had a different impact if I felt that I was listening to a piece of music, separate to the coach that I was working with […]. I don't think I could have been engaged and present in that music in the same way […]. So yeah, I'm glad that we shared it (PT009).

This participant valued sharing the soundtrack since it created an environment to listen to the piece in a new way.

3. An Embodied Experience

Many participants indicated an awareness that the soundtrack, the session content, or session outcome resonated within them through bodily movements and emotions. In response to the invitation to move to the soundtrack, some participants nodded their heads, made drawings, tapped their fingers, or sang along.

3.1 Aware of bodily response

Participants acknowledged awareness of their body’s responses to the soundtrack and/or discussion. They expressed where sensations were felt, changes in body positioning, gut-feelings, and the overall impact of the soundtrack’s felt sense. Participants felt the soundtrack immersed within them and wanted to sustain the feeling the soundtrack created. The soundtrack resonated with some participants, wanting to embody the performers’ social impact or way of being, and elements of the piece, such as the rhythm or lyrics. During the coaching sessions, a few participants stated that they had goosebumps while listening or answering the soundtrack questions. One of the six ways PT004 explained knowing that something is meaningful to them, is through a bodily response such as goosebumps or being stopped in their tracks.

PT012 explained that the soundtrack enabled them to connect with their body, taking the session beyond simple verbalization:

The soundtrack certainly brought something different (in a good way) to the session […]. I sense that the soundtrack helped me get more in touch with my body, which I think is an important thing in coaching (PT012).

Additionally, PT004 explained how their chosen soundtrack helped them connect beyond a cognitive plane, into an emotional, energetic, and sensational plane:

The song helped a multilevel connection with myself through my head at the cognitive level, my heart at the emotional level, my gut because intuitively I know I need the kind of energy the song transmits, and the whole body (physical sensations, skin, heart rate, rhythm and body movements) (PT004).

Resonance of the soundtrack within the body suggests a personal connection and deeper meaning were present, which relates to the next minor theme.

3.2 Meaning arose

Integration of the soundtrack during sessions facilitated a more meaningful experience. Meaning was created through the discussion or the soundtrack connection to the topic. PT012 depicted this overall idea, stating:

[…] the session gave me a deeper appreciation of the soundtrack, a deeper appreciation of myself and deeper insights into myself (PT012).

The soundtrack also connected the past with the present by illuminating a link between these two contexts. This is supported by many participants mentioning the soundtrack reminded them of their childhood or family. This link helped participants to further process the session topic:

The track also prompted me to 'join the dots' of many parts of my life, things that have been important to me for a very long time, and to see how they are connected to my current issue. It has made me feel like there is a thread running through my life, and that my business [topic] is connected to that through-line (PT002).

3.3 Movement and direction occurred

In addition to the coach’s invitation to move to the soundtrack, elements of movement underlie session topics, felt sense of the soundtrack, and the use of movement language in the reflective texts. An example of participants’ uses of movement metaphor to describe the outcome is:

It [session outcome] feels like a “third” space to gently land on one of those clouds that Judy [soundtrack artist] sings about and then in the future bounce to another more suitable cloud (PT011).

There was an internal movement or change in feelings or perspective around the soundtrack and session topic, “the session encouraged me to reflect and look at fear [topic] from another angle. I started feeling a shift happening at the end of the session” (PT003).

The soundtrack provided direction by acting as a ‘jumping off point’ for some participants to speak about their topic or to fine-tune what was important. For others, the soundtrack grounded the session and brought them back to the topic if they were veering away. For example, PT005 explained:

I think having the soundtrack helped shape and give direction to the session. It also helped me mentally prepare for it […]. I think having listened to and contemplated about the song prior to the session was a time saver (PT005).

3.4 Soundtrack choice is intuitive

For some, there was no conscious reasoning for their soundtrack choice. For example, PT011 explained, “it’s a song from when I was growing up and I haven’t heard it for a while. It just popped into my head when I was considering what song to listen to and focus on”. At the end of PT011’s session, they stated that they became aware of the subconscious reason for choosing the soundtrack. PT002 provided a descriptive imagery of the intuitive soundtrack choice:

However, I ended up making the choice of the track very instinctively […]. From all the tracks I had scrolled through it really jumped out at me as the only one I could choose (PT002).

Although the reasoning behind soundtrack choices was limited, participants were able to explain how their soundtrack connected to their topic, and often the interpretation of the soundtrack related to the insights that emerged during the session.

PT012 demonstrated a diversion from this minor theme, explicitly stating choosing the soundtrack was a “process” that “was not straightforward”. After reflecting on their session outcome, this participant was confident in their soundtrack choice.

Discussion

This study set out to explore the use of a piece of music, or soundtrack, in a coaching session, aiming to utilize participants’ reflections of the session to analyse themes that developed. These themes are useful for practitioners in the field of coaching to learn about the experience of coachees who utilized this tool.

There are four key findings from the current study:

integrating music into a coaching session can prime thinking and emotional state.

self-selected music can provide insight and a means for verbalizing the topic, problem, or solution.

music can have a lingering impact after the session, creating a motivational memory tie connecting the soundtrack to insights.

as movement was provoked, meaning and connection developed.

This study is an important addition to the field of coaching, as the results are the first known support for the use of self-selected music in a coaching session. Some of the minor themes have been supported by previous literature in surrounding areas, whilst others are new. Over-arching concepts which can be used to summarize these themes and encapsulate multiple themes are meaning-making, inspiration, and consciousness.

Soundtrack as a Tool

Many of the minor themes were unique to this study and not present in previous research on music use in coaching. However, the minor theme 1.2) soundtrack as a motivational reminder, supports research on music’s ability to evoke autobiographical memories as well as music’s motivational abilities (Janata, 2009; Loizou et al., 2014; Ji et al., 2019). This finding suggests the integration of a soundtrack creates a lasting impact that extends beyond the time frame of the session. This theme might be especially beneficial for coachees who struggle to remember insights revealed during the session or feel motivated to achieve a set goal. This minor theme was the most significant amongst all participants. Additionally, 1.5) metaphor and lyrical exploration are valuable and 1.4) soundtrack helps verbalize, are supported by ideas in other coaching literature (Humphrey & Tomlinson, 2020; Nardon & Hari, 2021). For example, Sheather (2019) suggests images, such as metaphor, help people comprehend what they previously were unable to articulate because they can externalise through the images. The soundtrack provided a unique means for using and formulating metaphor that the coachee connected with. Additionally, participants’ reflective texts often contained two metaphor factors commonly used to describe music, 1. movement (e.g., ‘rhythm’) and 2. interior (e.g., ‘inside one’s self’ and ‘deep’) (Schaerlaeken et al., 2019). Findings from the current study revealing that participants had an empowered, energised, or motivated feeling after the session, supports Nardon and Hari’s (2021) finding that ‘metaphors became a self-empowerment tool, which is vital in situations where individuals feel powerless’ (p. 7).

Though some literature claim metaphor is an ‘essential element in sensemaking’ (Nardon & Hari, 2021, p. 2), others claim that embodiment contributes to meaning-making (Leman, 2010), or claim that music is important for sensemaking due to its connection to emotion and memory (Koelsch, 2015). All arguments are likely valid, being that metaphor and music are inherently embodied. Thus, self-selected music can be a tool for meaning or sense-making due to metaphor present in the lyrics and sound imagery, elements of movement within the sound, and provoked emotional responses. Whilst it could be argued that something will become meaningful with enough focus, this is likely not the only reason for meaning to have arisen in the sessions. Another reason may be due to music’s qualities and principles which suggests the soundtracks likely had inherent meaning prior to the session. Since the soundtrack was selected before the session, perhaps the meaning was simply made visible through the discussion. Instructions given to participants to choose a soundtrack which they were familiar with, and which connected/related to the session topic, likely influenced the meaning that developed from the session and the extent to which the soundtrack provided insight into the topic.

The minor theme of 1.1) choosing the soundtrack primed session thinking, can be beneficial for coachees who are unsure what topic they want to focus on and those who would benefit from thinking through the topic before the session. Additionally, it is helpful for coachees who want to organize their thinking around the topic or focus their thoughts. The minor theme, 1.3) soundtrack developed new insights, was unique to this research. A general aim of coaching is creation of a space for reflection, new thinking, and self-awareness, however, the music and metaphor within lyrics and sound might enhance these aims by activating creative areas of the brain, thus aiding in these new thoughts, insights, and clarity. Additionally, research has found that positive social interactions increase cognitive flexibility and music increases affect and social connection. Thus, musical engagement might increase cognitive flexibility, an aspect of creativity (Maury & Rickard, 2016). Therefore, the act of listening to the song at the start of the session may have been a positive engagement that led to flexibility in solution generation. In Longhurst’s work, the ‘aha’ moment, which is similar to creative insight, it was suggested to be connected to consciousness (2006). There was a similar connection to the subconscious found in this study, though it was not fully explored. Longhurst suggests that the ‘aha’ moment starts in the body and then travels to the mind (2006). Perhaps in playing the song at the beginning of the session, participants began to process the topic and insights in their body and throughout the session, as the conversation progressed, they began to process the insights in their mind and verbalised them.

An Emotional Experience

The minor themes, 2.1) an energised feeling, and 2.2) soundtrack impacts emotional state, are not unique to this study since the concepts are abundant in psychomusicology research (Koelsch, 2015; Bernardi et al., 2018; Stewart et al., 2019). 2.1) an energised feeling has been supported by research that found feelings of empowerment, joy, and inspiration occur from music (Batt-Rawden, 2010; Lynar et al., 2017; Ji et al., 2019).

The minor theme, 2.4) discomfort from sharing and listening to the soundtrack together, is unique to this study. This theme was only expressed by three participants; however, it might have been something other participants felt but did not express. This minor theme brings to light the difference between virtual and in-person interactions, due to the software structure and setup. Music is generally shared in settings where individuals can turn inward, without directly facing another. Thus, the format of virtual video calls for the sessions might have contributed to this minor theme. This finding highlights one of the many ways virtual interactions can differ from in-person ones.

An Embodied Experience

All minor themes were new knowledge concerning the specific study design. One minor theme that supports previous embodied music cognition literature was 3.2) meaning arose. The theoretical suggestion from Leman (2010) that meaning is developed through movement, expands on this minor theme. This finding may be explained by principles of music, such as containing frequency the body synchronizes with, activating motor networks in the brain, and creating psychophysiological responses (Harrison & Loui, 2014; Schaefer et al., 2014; Koelsch, 2015). This meaning also arose because the soundtrack helped participants link their past to their present context, extending beyond simple remembrance of the past. Sheather (2019) summarises the idea well; ‘our connection [to art] is an emotional one that takes us to our memories and links us to places, people and experiences, bringing them to the present moment’ (p. 8).

The minor themes, 3.1) aware of bodily response, and 3.3) movement and direction occurred, suggest that integrating music into a coaching session could be another way to incorporate embodiment into coaching. Participants connected to the soundtrack on many embodied levels, such as sensation, motion, and emotion. These themes support patients’ experience of the Bonny Method (Abbott, 2005). Perhaps when participants spoke of feeling the music or being propelled by the rhythm, their body was synchronized with the soundtrack. Additionally, not only was there physical movement, but also metaphorical movement in the reflective texts which support the idea that metaphor is often embodied. The use of movement metaphor in the reflections for this sample is encouraging because many of the session topics revolved around feeling stuck or wondering what is next. Coachees’ use of movement metaphors suggests participants felt directed motion towards their goal after the session.

The minor theme, 3.4) soundtrack choice was intuitive, may be explained by the idea that it was a subconscious choice. The definition of intuitive is ‘the power or faculty of attaining to direct knowledge or cognition without evident rational thought and inference’ (Merriam-Webster, 2022). While discussion around the soundtrack and topic developed, the researcher observed that insight made during the discussion matched participants’ interpretation of the soundtrack, suggesting the subconscious was brought to light. This suggests the soundtrack, chosen before the session and any new insights, was chosen intuitively knowing the piece contained needed insight for the topic. This finding supports the experience of Bonny Method patients who were able to access different levels of consciousness during therapy (Abbott, 2005).

Limitations, reflections, and suggestions for future research

Two design limitations of the current study are: coaching sessions were not recorded and the method for sharing the soundtrack was not streamlined. The first limitation might have reduced the strength of the results because many participants’ written reflections did not mention ideas or opinions verbalized during the session, which would have supported themes further. However, not recording the sessions was a strategic decision because the researcher did not want to deter potential participants who might be uncomfortable with a recording. The second limitation at times made it harder for the researcher to hear the full soundtrack if participants’ audio cut out. However, the researcher was familiar with all soundtracks, having listened before the session. One solution for this limitation would be for the researcher/coach to share computer audio of the chosen soundtrack for all coachees, if done virtually. A bias of this study is many of the participants were coaches themselves, thus familiar with how coaching is structured and what a reasonable topic is for a one-off session. Therefore, disadvantages that might occur with an unfamiliar sample may not be present in the data.

The reflexive thematic analysis method, chosen for the study analysis, brings with it the researchers’ perspectives, which can impact the results. While analysing the data, the researcher recognised there is more than one valid interpretation or synthesis of the data. Thus, although this study was empirical, the results lend themselves to be interpretive.

Upon observation, the general soundtrack questions used in this study, appeared to provoke more topic discussion after the conversation had tapered off. The soundtrack questions helped participants further develop the soundtrack’s connection to the topic, providing more insight and extending or reinforcing the conversation about the topic.

The most likely application of the findings is for use in coaching sessions, however, other uses for the findings include informing more research on music in coaching or embodied music cognition. For future research with a similar design, it would be useful to extend the current findings by examining the integration of music in an in-person session, asking coachees to self-select an awe-eliciting soundtrack they are familiar with, or use different soundtracks over the course of multiple coaching sessions – providing longitudinal analysis.

Conclusion

Implications from this research study are that the integration of music into a coaching session provided many benefits: increased embodiment, aided insight and idea generation, impacted coachees’ mood (e.g., feeling energised, empowered, or calm), provided a motivational reminder, and helped verbalize the topic. Overall, the use of music in the session aided as a prime for creative thinking. Coachees who are open to the use of music in their coaching sessions could benefit from outcomes similar to those participants experienced. The integration of self-selected music is a valuable addition to the limited research on music’s use in coaching. Results are relevant for coaching practitioners who are interested in utilising self-selected music in the ways explained, for introduction or one-off sessions where building connectedness is important, for developing coachee self-awareness, and enhancing creative thinking. Additionally, results could also inform music therapists using guided imagery and music who might find the use of self-selected music helpful for clients in connecting to and working with the past.

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