Empowering the undergraduate journey: A decade of research on the impact of life coaching with university students

Abstract

At many institutions of higher learning, counseling resources are provided for students, yet professional coaching services are rare. This study (which continued a 3-year study on coaching outcomes published in 2018) details the outcomes of providing professional life coaching to undergraduates with 10 years of quantitative and qualitative data (Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018). Undergraduate students who received life coaching reported increased self-confidence, greater connection to life purpose, satisfaction with choice of major, awareness of values and alignment with decision making, and help with individual goal setting and attainment. After receiving coaching, diverse students reported even greater gains than white students in efficacy (alignment of values with decisions), confidence in life purpose, and confidence in choice of major. This mixed-methods study reveals significant evidence that providing professional life coaching to undergraduates can be a highly effective method to develop young adults, enhance retention, and increase well-being and life satisfaction.

Keywords

life coaching undergraduates coaching outcomes retention

Introduction

Life coaching has been defined by the International Coaching Federation (ICF) as “partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize personal and professional potential” (International Coaching Federation, 2023). The process of coaching often reveals to the client previously unknown sources of imagination, productivity, decision-making, perseverance, and leadership, which in turn, promote improved well-being (Bleck et al., 2022; Govindji & Linley, 2007; Grant, 2003; Green et al., 2006; Linley et al., 2010; Tofade, 2010). Throughout their post-secondary education, students are faced with numerous difficult decisions, increased academic rigor, and a host of social predicaments. Professional life coaching may be a highly effective option to help students navigate these challenges successfully as they pursue their educational goals.

Literature Review

Life Coaching with Undergraduates

University students experience many stressors that may include academic performance, financial challenges, relationship struggles, and career indecisiveness. These stress points often occur during a transitional time of life when external circumstances are changing (living arrangements, work, support system, etc.) which only compounds the negative effects of these stressors (Short et al., 2010). Additionally, the added challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic over the last few years have left students with limited mental and emotional capacity (Ardekani et al., 2021). Negative effects of these compounded experiences can include increased anxiety and depression, which also increases the use of medication (Short et al., 2010).

Life coaching can be a beneficial tool to help students effectively manage the plethora of stressors. When offered, it is a convenient and inexpensive (if offered cost-free through the university) option for students during a pivotal time of transition and growth (Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018). According to research, life coaching can help students manage stress and anxiety while enhancing personal growth (Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018; Short et al., 2010). Despite considerable growth over the last decade, the presence of coaching in higher education contexts is minimal (Griffiths, 2005; Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018). Limited practice accounts for the nominal amount of empirical research on life coaching with undergraduate students. A review of the few existing studies is explored in the following literature review.

Most notably, many of the existing studies on life coaching with students in university focus on students with disabilities. These studies highlight university students on the autism spectrum (Geller & Greebergh, 2009) as well as students with learning disabilities and ADHD (Boutelle & Parker, 2009; Buchanan, 2011). Results demonstrate that life coaching positively influences an emerging sense of independence and goal attainment. These studies also discovered that life coaching increased university student success by fostering self-determination and time management. Another study revealed that coaching had a significant and positive impact on students with disabilities in their pursuit of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) degrees (Bellman et al., 2015). Students in these academic programs reported that participating in coaching helped them achieve several educational and personal goals, including improved goal setting, increased confidence, and a more focused and organized career search (Bellman et al., 2015). A separate study that focused on student support through life coaching in a chemical engineering program, resulted in greater self-awareness, enhanced mental health, quality of life, and coping strategies for students transitioning into university (Mogashana & Basitere, 2021). Life coaching is also associated with higher levels of goal attainment, self-confidence, and resilience as it relates to career development and other life outcomes (Potvin et al., 2023). According to these studies, it is evident life coaching supports students with disabilities by helping them attain goals in higher education. Further studies on coaching with students demonstrated how coaching improves mental health functioning, including stress management (Short et al., 2010; Fried & Irwin, 2016). In one study with post-graduate students, students experienced notably reduced stress, anxiety, and depression because of life coaching (Grant, 2003). Improving overall mental health, as well as learning to better manage stress and anxiety, can lead to better academic performance (Devine et al., 2013). These studies indicate positive outcomes for students with elevated stress levels who choose to work with a life coach.

In addition to mental health and students with disabilities, life coaching has also improved the quality of life for doctoral students. In a final study of doctoral students at a university in London, students perceived life coaching to have a positive impact on their professional skills, helping them overcome challenges with their student supervisor partnership, and developing a sense of community beyond their academics. Participants also reported that coaching contributed to improved wellbeing (Lane & Wilde, 2018).

Hope and resiliency, along with a growth mindset, can help students navigate stressors during their university experience. Life coaching has a positive effect on these aspects, which promotes success at university, and also in students’ overall well-being (Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018). Stress management, resiliency, increased confidence, and independence all help to lower stress, anxiety, and depression (Devine et al., 2013; Lane & Wilde, 2018; Short et al., 2010). Although these studies with undergraduate students are with very specific populations of students, they demonstrate the effectiveness of life coaching in areas of mental health, goal attainment, and well-being.

Life Coaching and Positive Outcomes

As mentioned, professional life coaching has been associated with positive outcomes for several populations, areas, and groups outside of higher education. Some of these outcomes include improved training outcomes, higher job performance, and greater work effectiveness (Nazifah, 2023). One meta-analysis aimed at providing insight into the positive effects of coaching within an organizational context. The results showed that coaching had a significant positive effect on performance and skills, well-being, coping, work attitudes, and goal-directed self-regulation (Theeboom et al., 2013). Another 10-week study involving cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching with students revealed significant increases in positive outcomes, including well-being, hope, and goal striving (Green et al, 2006). Additionally, this study revealed the impact on these positive outcomes were sustained up to 30 weeks following the intervention. One study comparing peer life coaching with professional life coaching found that both peer and professional life coaching were related to increased well-being. However, professional life coaching had additional benefits that surpassed those of peer life coaching, including coaches that were more engaged in the process as well as higher levels of well-being outcomes associated with environmental mastery (Spence & Grant, 2007).

Life coaching can also improve physical health outcomes, including quality of life, depression, anxiety, self-efficacy, and blood sugar levels (Ammentorp et al., 2013). One study conducted a life-coaching intervention with individuals receiving cancer treatment. Their research revealed positive impacts on self-confidence after cancer treatment (Wagland et al., 2015). Further, another study found that a life coaching intervention had significant positive effects on participants’ diabetes self-efficacy, quality of life, and body mass index (Nishita et al., 2013). Life coaching interventions are associated with positive well-being, psychological, and physical health outcomes (Ammentorp et al., 2013; Nishita et al., 2013; Wagland et al., 2015).

Life Coaching with Racially and Ethnically Diverse Students

While life coaching has been associated with positive outcomes for several populations and groups, less research has been conducted that examines if such outcomes are also found specifically for ethnically and racially diverse students. Ethnically diverse students that are culturally mismatched from the greater cultural norms present in their university environments are at risk for experiencing psychological distress (Stephens et al., 2012), which in turn may negatively impact their social-emotional development along with their academic success. As such, there is a need to identify and implement interventions that can serve as protective factors for these populations to promote holistic well-being. Not only may ethnic minority students experience a cultural mismatch, but it has also been noted that racial minority students experience a sense of invisibility due to structural institutional neglect, and that life coaching may be a practical way in which to “see” these students to increase their sense of belonging, self-efficacy and academic success (McGill et al., 2018).

A recent study that sampled ethnic minority students (Blakeslee et al., 2022), tested the efficacy of a self-determination coaching model on university students who have been a part of the foster-care system and self-identified as having mental health challenges. Out of the 35 participants in the study, 14 participants identified as persons of color; and the analyses suggested the coaching model had a positive impact on self-determination, career-related self-efficacy and career exploration activities, mental-health self-efficacy and empowerment, GPA, and university retention (Blakeslee et al., 2022). However, the study did not examine the similarities and differences that the intervention had between the ethnic majority and students of color. The researchers noted that ethnic minorities who enter university may have additional cultural classifications such as previous experience in foster-care or being a first-generation university student, that may add additional stressors which would increase their need for interventions that would support not only their retention and academic success, but their overall wellness and career readiness.

Additionally, students who are not culturally mismatched on their university campuses, such as African-American students who attend Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU), may still find themselves experiencing psychological distress as a result of the cultural mismatch present when interacting with the cultural norms of the greater society. This may be seen not only within the transition to the workforce, but also in the transition to graduate and doctoral studies to position oneself for future careers in academia. A study by Williams and colleagues (2017) sought to address the underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in academic positions across the life sciences by exploring the impact that coaching may have on PhD students’ sense of social support. Out of 99 participants, 51 of the students identified as racial ethnic minorities; the overall results of the study suggested that students found coaching helpful in providing emotional, informational and appraisal support, also potentially serving as a buffer to some of the stressors experienced (Williams et al., 2017). While also pointing to the need for additional research that specifically examines the impact of coaching interventions on ethnically diverse minorities, the impetus for this study reiterates that in order for students to have a successful transition into a workforce in which they may be significantly underrepresented, supports need to be accessible that will not only help them manage their stress and promote their mental health, but also increase their hope and resilience within environments that may be experienced as discriminatory in nature.

Life Coaching and Retention

Despite being limited, research demonstrates professional coaching has positive outcomes for undergraduates. However, there is even less research on the specific impact of coaching on retention (the number of students who re-enroll from one year to the next). Only a few empirical research studies have been carried out which examine the link between life coaching and academic retention of undergraduate students. However, those studies which have been completed show the potential of life coaching to improve retention, including for academically at-risk students (Alzen et al., 2021; Capstick at el., 2019).

Alzen and colleagues (2021) found that students who participated in coaching earned slightly higher-grade point averages during the semester they were coached. More significantly, they were also about 10/ more likely to enroll for classes again and earn more credits in the semester following coaching. In a larger study of 1434 undergraduate students, Capstick and colleagues (2019) found that at-risk students who participated in coaching had significant GPA increases and were more likely to be retained at the university than were those students who did not receive coaching (Alzen et al., 2021; Capstick at el., 2019).

Finally, a smaller research study in South Africa by Mogashana and Basitere (2021) found that participants entering their first year of university who received coaching were less likely to drop out, responded better to failure during their first year, gained self-awareness, and improved their academic performance. Approximately four months after the intervention, students continued to report positive benefits from the coaching. The qualitative data in this study included individual responses to “How your life might have been different without life coaching” to which students replied, “I would have failed, or even dropped out,” and “I would’ve given up, probably left school.” The researchers reported:

Overall, the results indicate that the intervention played a significant role in improving students’ experiences in the first year, and ultimately, in reducing their chances of dropping out, with 65/ of the participants indicating that they would have dropped out at the end of the first year, had there been no intervention (Mogashana & Basitere, 2021, p. 228).

While limited, the current literature reveals life coaching as an effective conduit for personal and professional growth. According to the studies mentioned, life coaching supports students with disabilities and those in doctoral programs by helping them attain their goals in higher education (Boutelle & Parker, 2009; Buchanan, 2011; Geller & Greebergh, 2009). Life coaching is associated with improved training outcomes, higher job performance, and greater work effectiveness in the workplace (Nazifah, 2023; Theeboom et al., 2013) as well as improved physical health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and blood sugar levels (Ammentorp et al., 2013). Although helpful, these studies do not specifically address the impact of professional life coaching on traditional undergraduate students.

Need for Current Study

Despite a growing body of research on life coaching, previous studies focus on life coaching with students who represent a specific population (i.e., students under stress, female students with obesity, ADHD, students with disabilities, etc.) and do not span over time. These studies demonstrate positive effects yet leave significant questions: How does life coaching impact university students in general, outside of a specific population? How does life coaching impact university students over time? What would be revealed in the data if life coaching research spanned a decade? How important is life coaching to the holistic efforts of a university? What is the perceived student value of offering life coaching to university students? This study aims to answer these questions by analyzing a decade of outcome data on the effectiveness of life coaching at the undergraduate level. The university utilized in this study offers free life coaching to all students, providing an ideal opportunity to explore the outcomes and impact of this program.

Purpose of the Research

As mentioned, the purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of life coaching among undergraduate students using data collected from 2013-2023. The following areas were considered of utmost importance in this study as measures for data collection: awareness of values and alignment with decision making, confidence in goal setting and attainment, confidence in choice of major (specific area of study) and satisfaction with that major, compatibility of choices with faith, values, and strengths, confidence in life purpose, and self-confidence.

Colleges and universities are weighing the value of programs offered with limited budgets. It remains necessary to evaluate whether life coaching is a valuable resource to undergraduate university student development. First, as noted in a previous study, there is very limited outcome data using life coaching with undergraduate students (Griffiths, 2005; Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018). Existing research includes specific groups such as those with learning disabilities, stress, or ADHD (Boutelle & Parker, 2009; Buchanan, 2011; Fried & Irwin, 2016; Short et al., 2010). Second, life coaching remains ambiguous or undefined by some, especially within higher education. Exploring the outcomes of coaching can help the academy understand what life coaching is and the impact it can provide. Last, universities are seeking ways to retain undergraduate students (including diverse students and academically at-risk students) and increase their overall satisfaction with the university. Examining life coaching as a possible service to undergraduates could provide another helpful resource to support student well-being and retention efforts.

Methodology

The data for this study was collected through the Life Calling and Career office at a small, liberal arts university in the Midwestern region of the United States. Pre and post-coaching surveys were collected among undergraduate student coaching clients across ten academic years (2013-2023). All participants in the study received life coaching services, and there was no control group in the study. The surveys included quantitative and qualitative questions analyzed through a mixed-methods approach, using quantitative data analysis and a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Throughout the methodology and results sections, in reference to participants, students who identified as ethnically and racially diverse are referred to as “BIPOC”, “students of color”, “racially and ethnically diverse”, as well as “minority students” due to the importance of highlighting the students’ experiences as underrepresented students at a Predominately White Institution (PWI).

Participants and Procedures

To gain specific data, it was important to assess the impact of life coaching on undergraduate students across several domains. Beginning in the fall of 2013 and continuing through the spring of 2023, coaching surveys were offered to hundreds of students (n = 393) participating in life coaching. These students represented freshmen through seniors in academic standing. Data collection occurred via online surveys given to students immediately before and after their coaching process. Student participation was optional, and no incentives were offered for completion. All coaches were professionally trained and certified through the International Coaching Federation (ICF).

Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection

The survey instrument used for data collection utilized a 10-item assessment (pre and post-coaching) measuring student-perceived change, growth, and development across several domains. Each question was framed as a statement to which the student participants responded on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Questions included statements about self-concept, such as “I have clear goals for my future,” “I feel confident about my choice of major,” and “I understand my strengths and how to use them.” The final questions in the survey were related to the coaching experience, and were qualitative and open-ended, such as, “What would you like to share with others about your life coaching experience?”

Student participants were also presented with two qualitative questions in the post-coaching survey to provide feedback about their life coaching experience. They were invited to share what they wanted others to know about coaching and reflect on their experience receiving coaching sessions from a professional coach.

The survey used for this study was developed by the research team to gather information about coaching outcomes related to university students. To be included in the study, students must have participated in at least three coaching sessions, and must also have completed both the pre- and post-coaching surveys. The time elapsed between pre- and post-coaching surveys was usually a matter of months, always less than an academic year. The student data was archived and confidential. Quantitative and qualitative results were analyzed separately by the research team.

Data Analysis

Once the data were compiled for both surveys, the average responses within each domain were configured. Using SPSS data software, paired samples t-tests on the domains were utilized between the pre and post coaching survey to test the null hypothesis and determine statistical significance. The quantitative data was also separated to examine the differences between white students and racially and ethnically diverse students, to see how results might differ.

The data collected also included 256 individual qualitative responses from students, which were analyzed by the research team using grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990), a method by which all responses were analyzed and coded to search for themes from the words (and lived experiences) of participants. Grounded theory is a helpful and detailed qualitative approach that carefully reviews and categorizes responses of participants to generate theory in regard to a specific experience ‘from the ground up.’ Since we have very little qualitative empirical data about students’ experience of professional coaching, grounded theory was elected to explore what emerged from the data. The qualitative team used open coding, axial coding, and selective coding to carefully identify and label categories and themes (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990), which were then made into a framework for discussion.

Results

Demographic Information

Participants self-reported demographic information, including gender identity, ethnicity, and age. 20.4/ of the participants (n = 80) identified as male and 79.6/ of the participants (n = 313) identified as female. The mean age of participants was 19 (SD = 1.50). 90/ of the participants identified as White, 2.9/ of the participants identified as Hispanic/Latino, 2.5/ of the participants identified as Black or African American, 1.3/ identified as Asian, and 3.3/ identified as Multiple Races.

Missing Data

Of the 393 participants included in the quantitative analyses, all participants answered all quantitative items specifically related to the life coaching measures in both the pre-life coaching survey and post-life coaching survey. Therefore, there were no missing data considerations related to the quantitative analyses presented below.

Quantitative Results and Degree of Change

After careful analysis, the data indicated a significant change within each domain tested. All students who received life coaching reported a positive impact on awareness of values/alignment with decision making, confidence in goal setting and attainment, confidence in major choice, compatibility of choices with faith and strengths, confidence in life purpose, and confidence in self. These quantitative measures demonstrated self-reported change for participants, with confidence in choice of major showing particularly significant gains, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

Figure 1

Figure 2

To provide further detail, the coaching outcomes for students who received at least three sessions of life coaching were positive and statistically significant (<0.01). The study included students reporting significant increases after coaching in the following areas (in order of gain, from greatest to least): confidence in choice of major (36.42/ increase), confidence in goal setting and attainment (30.99/ increase), confidence in life purpose (28.88/ increase), confidence in self (20.86/ increase), compatibility of choices with faith and strengths (20.67/ increase), and awareness of values/alignment with decision making (16.88/ increase). Each of these gains were self-reported, based on students’ pre and post coaching surveys according to a Likert scale (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Figure 4

Although the percentage of ethnically diverse students in this research study was only 10/ (n = 39), the results of life coaching outcomes for ethnically diverse students was uniquely substantial. Students of color reported a significant increase in every domain, especially in the areas of confidence in goal setting/attainment, confidence in choice of major, and confidence in life purpose/calling (Figure 5), with greater improvement than students who were not ethnically and racially diverse.

Figure 5

It is noteworthy to mention that within the domain of awareness of values and alignment with decision making, life coaching increased diverse students’ positive sense of efficacy almost 10/ more than white students (an overall 24/ increase). In fact, several other domains revealed increases within racially and ethnically diverse students compared to white students. Students of color appear to gain even more confidence in life purpose and confidence in choice of major from life coaching than white students. This degree of change is critically important among a population of students that may be at risk for a decreased sense of belonging, social barriers, and injustice, which often leads to decreased retention (Figure 6).

Figure 6

Figure 7

Overall, quantitative results indicated significant changes within each specific domain tested, including positive changes in awareness of values/alignment with decision making, confidence in goal setting and attainment, confidence in major choice and life direction, compatibility of decision with strengths and values, confidence in life purpose, and confidence in self. Post coaching data showed increases across every arena measured concerning undergraduate student thriving.

Qualitative Results of Coaching

The data collected included 256 individual qualitative responses from students. The qualitative responses from racially and ethnically diverse students were analyzed within the overall qualitative results, and in line with the purposes of the study to specifically explore life coaching experiences of racially and ethnically diverse students, specific qualitative themes that emerged for diverse students are included in a distinct section below. Before sharing the details of the qualitative data, it is noteworthy to mention that all the qualitative data was overwhelmingly positive.

Several themes emerged which confirmed and further illustrate the quantitative results of this study. Students shared that coaching (1) was positive and life-changing; (2) increased self-understanding and clarity; (3) helped to support their choice of major; (4) strengthened their life direction and choices; (5) increased self-esteem and confidence; and (6) encouraged their spiritual growth and relationships. Each of these themes is explored below, using quotes of students who experienced coaching to illustrate particular themes. Responses demonstrate the specific impact of professional coaching on undergraduate students.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching as Positive and Life-Changing

Students in this study affirmed the impact of receiving professional coaching during their undergraduate years as a powerful way to increase their positive mind set and transform their lives. For instance, one student reported:

[Coaching was an] ...invaluable experience that has changed not only the course of college, but of my life. I'm taking this process into my life as I move out of college and move towards living integrated.

Another shared, “This has been one of the best and most helpful experiences that I have ever been through. I cannot wait to move forward with my newfound confidence and courage.”

Students used words and phrases such as “transformative,” “amazing,” “life-changing,” “very beneficial,” “extremely positive” and “so helpful.” One student explained it like this:

Life coaching will change your life if you are willing to put in hard, internal work. It made me a better person and signing up for life coaching is the best decision I made in my college career. I only wish I would have signed up sooner.

One participant compared the impact of coaching to other significant college experiences:

Deciding to be coached was honestly the best decision I made in college. I saw more change and progress through my coaching experience than any class or organization I was involved in.

Another student noted that life coaching was foundational to identity development in college:

[Coaching was] simply a life changing process that opened up deep layers in my soul I didn’t even know were there.

More than 60 student responses emphasized the life-changing impact of their experience with coaching, and most participants also indicated that they would recommend coaching to other students during university as a source of positive growth and development.

100/ recommend. It's an amazing resource that is typically very expensive. Take full advantage of the fact it's included in tuition. Give yourself permission to be guided on your journey. It's okay to receive help. It'll support in moving you closer to your ideal self.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching Increased Self-Understanding

One of the themes that emerged from the qualitative data concerned the way life coaching helped students grow in self-understanding and clarifying their identity. Students affirmed that coaching “helped me to see my strengths more clearly” and “helped me clarify my vision of who I am and how to use my strengths and weaknesses.” They also acknowledged that “it gives you clarity, especially on your values, which can help you make better decisions” and “it was super helpful and helped me to become a lot more self-aware.” One participant shared the following:

Coaching brought me to a space of self-awareness and intentional work in order to better grow . . .Coaching is a lot of work but on the other side of it, I'm more holistically well than I ever would have been without digging into who I am.

Another student noted that this increased self-understanding helped them to grow and make decisions across several important areas of life:

You learn so much about yourself, and how to specifically apply your strengths to your social life, schoolwork and future career.

Even though one participant was still unsure about future decisions, they reported that coaching helped them gain valuable confidence in their identity:

Life Coaching was a great resource for me as I struggled to figure out more about myself and who I want to be in this world. I still do not know exactly what I will end up doing with my life, but I now have the confidence to explore possibilities based on my strengths, values and personality. This confidence is a result of my life coaching experience, and I could not be more thankful for this opportunity!

Finally, one student expressed how powerful clarity with self-awareness is to overall well-being and agency:

To be self-aware is to be free. Life coaching has been an experience that has positively changed the way that I view myself, those around me, and the world.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching as a Support for Choice of Major

Undergraduate students often used coaching to discuss specific interests, academics, classes, and their choice of major. Qualitative analysis of responses from participants revealed that more than 75 students noted (in their own words) that life coaching “helped me with finding the major that worked best for me.” For example, one student reported:

My Life Coaching experience has allowed me to be so confident in my choice of major as well as gain a better understanding of my strengths/ fears. Vocalizing my thoughts has helped me to learn more about what makes me "me". I can now say that I am content with my choice to pursue Nursing and excited to see where it leads me.

Another was grateful to her coach for helping her examine her choice of major, even when this was difficult to do:

Thank you for challenging me to think on a deeper level and ask hard questions about my major.

Students noted that deciding on a choice of major was often clarified by exploring values, personality, interests, and goals, which are primary tools in the coaching process:

Life coaching was very beneficial for me. My life coach was able to help me discover my main attributes and focuses in life. She even helped me decide on what I should change my major to!

One participant said that he was “completely confident” with his major after participating in life coaching:

It was an amazing way to be completely confident that I was making the right choice with the Major I chose.

Even when participants were not yet settled on a major (or undecided), they noted that life coaching was a helpful process to engage as a resource:

Life Coaching can be beneficial regardless of whether you feel completely at a loss in terms of your major or completely settled; there is always benefit to establishing goals, outlining a vision, and developing concrete steps to make that vision a reality.

Many of the qualitative responses related to this theme encouraged others to seek coaching if they wanted to change their major of if they wanted confirmation of their choice of major:

I have found life coaching to be very beneficial and it has helped get me moving in the right direction. I recommend it to anyone who may want to change their major or is even slightly questioning their major and just wants some confirmation.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching Clarified Life Direction and Career Path

While many students specifically discussed choice of major, a significant number of students went even further to affirm that life coaching also helped them clarify their life direction or career path, as illustrated in the qualitative responses below.

It helped me figure out who I am and be realistic about picturing myself in the workplace. I have had a lot more confidence in what I have chosen and can picture myself actually working in this major. I think that is one of the hardest things for a college student, being able to actually picture ourselves working. We may enjoy the concepts involved in a major but that doesn't necessarily mean that we would enjoy the work that comes from that major.

Several participants noted that there were specific elements of life coaching that supported their process of choosing and pursuing a specific direction, through greater self-awareness:

Knowing yourself better is the first step to setting goals and finding a path in life that will be fulfilling to you. Life coaching isn't about finding your dream job; it's about discovering or re-discovering the unique dreams, goals, qualities, and aspirations that you have as a person.

Several participants noted that coaching helped to clarify future direction and possible career paths by exploring their values and strengths:

Life coaching really helped me figure out my values and what career path my strengths would be fit for. My coach encouraged me to make decisions based on what I want to do and what I was feeling. I would strongly recommend life coaching to others.

Other common responses about life direction were similar to these: “My life coaching experience helped me discover what I value and how to apply that to my future career,”; “The experience was super helpful in helping me plan out my future for what I want to do in my life!” and “My life-calling coach was very helpful in helping me see my passions more clearly and a better direction as to what I would be interested in doing.” Occasionally, participants were very specific about their career direction after life coaching, as shown in the following response:

Life Coaching gave me confidence and affirmation in my goals of being in the healthcare field. Life coaching really showed me my strengths and motivations, and how I can use them in my professional career in the future.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching Increased Self-Esteem and Confidence

More than 100 students reported increased self-esteem and self-confidence after receiving life coaching. Many participants noted that this increase in confidence came from clarifying their values, strengths, goals and priorities, at a time in life when they needed to make so many decisions. One student described it this way:

Life Coaching was a great resource for me as I struggled to figure out more about myself and who I want to be in this world. I still do not know exactly what I will end up doing with my life, but I now have the confidence to explore possibilities based on my strengths, values and personality. This confidence is a result of my life coaching experience, and I could not be more thankful for this opportunity!

Some participants reported that coaching was a major turning point in helping them “move forward” or “gain confidence” or “discover greater purpose” in life:

This has been one of the best and most helpful experiences that I have ever been through. I cannot wait to move forward with my new found confidence and courage.

One student described going into the coaching experience with specific goals in mind, but being surprised to gain the additional benefit of greater self-confidence:

I had goals set for what I wanted to accomplish, but what I learned about myself and the confidence I gained was far greater than I ever imagined.

The impact of life coaching for another participant came through finding self-improvement, clarification of a major, and developing strength and self-confidence:

A coach can help you with way more than choosing a major. Having regular appointments with a coach and coming up with new ways to improve yourself every time can go a long way towards creating a stronger, more confident you.

Finally, one student expressed succinctly what they gained from life coaching:

I can now say confidently what I want to do, and I feel very confident in the decisions I make.

Qualitative Theme: Coaching Encouraged Relationships and Spiritual Growth

Even though there were no specific survey questions about relationships or spirituality, many students reported that life coaching helped them to grow relationally and spiritually. Many students referred to their divine sense of identity and “life calling” in their responses, and others explained that coaching helped them to show up in new ways in their relationships. One participant explained:

Life coaching built my self-confidence and made me proud of who God made me. I learned that life is about journeying on an adventure, not arriving at a specific thing in one instant.

Another participant noted the difference between life coaching and counseling, and the value found in the relationship with the coach:

Life coaching is not counseling. . . It is an opportunity for you to learn about yourself and dig deep into the person God has created you to be while discovering your values and talents through the guided assistance of a coach who truly cares about you as a whole.

Both of these participants affirmed that coaching helped them to find meaning and purpose through their own spiritual lens of “life calling” and their developing identity:

Life coaching is such a valuable resource. If you're questioning direction or your purpose, this is a great process to go through. Even with life's uncertainties, I feel confident in myself now and in who God made me to be.

Coaching helps you determine how God has equipped you and how you can impact the world.

Finally, this participant noted that life coaching can be “hard work,” but opens the way for learning and growth in relationships and “calling”:

Coaching brought me to a space of self awareness and intentional work in order to better grow and learn how the Lord equipped me for relationships and His calling. Coaching is a lot of work but on the other side of it, I'm more holistically well than I ever would have been without digging into who I am.

Summary of Qualitative Results

In the qualitative data, students expressed enjoyment and appreciation of the life coaching experience, identified specific ways in which they experienced life coaching as helpful, and noted they would recommend life coaching to other students. All the qualitative responses from students were overwhelmingly positive. Participants experienced the professional life coaching relationship as one in which they felt safe, listened to, cared for, affirmed, and supported. They noted increased awareness of their values, interests and strengths, greater peace, gratitude, health, confidence in one’s abilities, and self-worth. Students also shared how life coaching supported their academic major and career exploration, increased their sense of purpose, and informed their process of self-discovery, noting specifically when their life coach utilized powerful questions.

Table 1 shows a final sampling of additional student responses which speak to the impact that life coaching has in the lives of higher education students:

Table 1
Additional Student Responses

… you’ve pretty much nailed the process of helping students figure out who they are. I enjoyed every minute of Life Coaching, and plan to come back each year I am here. … was excellent at helping me think organizationally through my challenges. [My coach] taught me to find peace in my values rather than trying to please others, and for that I am very thankful!

It was an amazing experience. It was a time that I really valued and looked forward to. This was a very safe and flexible space to figure out what is next.

I appreciate [my coach] motivating me to keep pushing forward and accepting myself and my goals. Life coaching was very helpful in helping me understand my core values, areas I work best in, and how my interests can align with my future work.

It was the first time I had life coaching and I really appreciated the way that I was heard. I learned new things about myself on a deeper level than I ever had before. You helped me at the beginning and end of my hard journey, and I couldn’t be more thankful.

I appreciated how instead of directly answering my questions, [my coach] would ask another question or say a phrase that would lead to me answering the question on my own. This left me learning just how capable I am! I would share with others all positive things regarding Life Coaching. This experience has been wonderful, and I have enjoyed being able to meet with a coach one-to-one. I would share how I was given different challenges through the times my coach and I met. . . I was able to “try on” different majors and found this helpful.

It is amazing to sit and get what your needs are and help to guide you the right way to be successful in the future. I would highly recommend life coaching if you are ready and willing to get honest and a little bit uncomfortable!

Life coaching was a very productive place to process. Life coaching was really helpful for me! You get out of it what you put in.

Everyone should do it! I think there can be a lot of value in learning deeper about yourself and why we do certain things. It truly helped me explore my life and values and find ways to incorporate them into my life on a day-to-day basis.

That it has brought more peace and gratification into my life. It is an amazing experience. Everyone should do it!

I would highly recommend this to others! It’s very helpful and makes you think about deep topics you normally wouldn’t think of. It gave me the support I needed when I was going through a time of transition and uncertainty.

[Coaching] has a way of picking through the gunk in your brain to help you figure out what you’re really feeling. It’s very insightful and can help you when you’re struggling to find your purpose.

These meetings became something I was always looking forward to. Having someone to process life changes and interpret reactions with was wonderful and took off so much of my mental load this semester. I learned a lot about myself, my instincts, and my character. Life Coaching is an awesome way to learn more about yourself in order to be a better student, friend, and person by becoming self-aware. If you want to find your purpose or even ways you can better interact with the world you are in, life coaching would be a good way to do just that!

Life coaching helped me think in a different way about my decisions. The questions that were asked were very helpful and made me stop and really think about it. This then helped me come to some conclusions. [My coach] always listened well and knew exactly what to say in response. No matter how bizarre a topic was, [my coach] never appeared phased. [My coach] asked questions that challenged me to think deeply about why I am the way I am. [My coach] also gave sincere affirmations about my strengths, goals, and overall healing this semester. I appreciated that so much. I feel that [my coach] played a huge role in my becoming a healthier person this semester, and I’m immensely grateful for that!

Qualitative Results from Racially and Ethnically Diverse Students

While the sample qualitative responses previously mentioned include undergraduate participants of all ethnicities, below are responses that speak more specifically to the impact life coaching had on students of color. Several themes emerged, including the impact of life coaching on (1) values, interests, and exploring identity; (2) providing space and time to process issues and concerns; (3) decreasing stress or the “mental load”; and (4) helping them to make needed decisions and find guidance about specific career directions. Each of these themes is explored below, using quotes of students who experienced coaching to illustrate particular themes.

When students of color were asked what they desired for the life coach to know about their experience, responses included statements about values, interests, and exploring identity:

[Coaching was] simply a life changing process that opened deep layers in my soul I didn’t even know were there.

Life coaching was very helpful for me in helping understand my core values, areas I work best in, and how my interests can align with my future work.

Diverse participants also expressed gratitude for their individual coaches, and the space and time to process issues and concerns:

It was an amazing experience. It was a time that I really valued and looked forward to.

I honestly have no idea how long [my coach] has been doing this, but in every session, he never missed a beat. He always listened well and knew exactly what to say in response. No matter how bizarre a topic was, he never appeared phased. He asked questions that challenged me to think deeply about why I am the way I am. He also gave sincere affirmations about my strengths, goals, and overall healing this semester. I appreciated that so much. I feel that [my coach] played a huge role in my becoming a healthier person this semester, and I'm immensely grateful for that! I hope he knows that his work is very meaningful!

[My coach] impacted my life for the better!

Another unique theme for diverse students was utilizing professional coaching to decrease stress or the “mental load” when students were struggling or lacking in peace or purpose:

These meetings became something I was always looking forward to. Having someone to process life changes and interpret reactions with was wonderful. It took off so much of my mental load this semester. I learned a lot about myself, my instincts, and my character.

I want others to know that coaching has brought more peace and gratification to my life.

Coaching is very insightful and can help you when you’re struggling to find your purpose.

These BIPOC students noted how professional coaching helped them to make needed decisions and find guidance about specific career direction:

Life coaching helped me think in a different way about my decisions. The questions asked were very helpful and made me stop and really think about it. This helped me come to some conclusions.

Coaching is a great way to bounce your inner thoughts about your career and calling with someone who can help to guide you in the right direction.

When students of color were asked what they would like others to know about their life coaching experience, responses included:

It is amazing to sit and get what you actually need. My coach helped guide me the way to success.

I would highly recommend life coaching if you are ready and willing to get honest and a little bit uncomfortable!

Discussion

This study provides unique insight into the impacts of life coaching for both majority and minority university students by gathering a decade of quantitative and qualitative outcomes data. The findings of this study suggest that professional life coaching may serve as an effective intervention for undergraduate students across several different life concerns. Research indicates the positive impacts of coaching interventions with university students, including university students on the autism spectrum (Geller & Greebergh, 2009), students with learning disabilities and ADHD (Boutelle & Parker, 2009; Buchanan, 2011), students with disabilities in their pursuit of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) degrees (Bellman et al., 2015), and doctoral students (Lane & Wilde, 2018). The results of the current study provide additional insight into the potential benefits of professional life coaching, within a population of undergraduate university students.

The qualitative results of the present study echoed and illuminated the quantitative results found, as students reported increased awareness of their values and personal strengths, clarity in their choice of academic major and career interests, as well as confidence in their abilities, self-worth and life direction. Also noted was the way in which life coaching enhanced students’ process of self-discovery, with students of color affirming the helpfulness of life coaching in responding to their needs, offering support, increasing insight, peace and gratitude, and finding encouragement through professional coaching to uncover new perspectives and think more deeply.

The quantitative and qualitative results provide additional support for the use of life coaching within undergraduate student populations, adding to past research that found how life coaching can help students manage stress and anxiety while enhancing personal growth (Lefdahl-Davis et al., 2018; Short et al., 2010). These results also align with past research that found coaching to improve mental health functioning, including stress management (Short et al., 2010; Fried & Irwin, 2016). Several of the qualitative themes presented in the current study align with improved mental health functioning, including finding support and encouragement, higher levels of peace and gratitude, and confidence in their self-worth, abilities, and life direction.

Notably, the current study provided insight into impacts of life coaching for undergraduate students over the course of ten years. There is a paucity of research exploring potential impacts of life coaching for undergraduate students, particularly using data over the course of several years, and the results from the current study suggest the continued importance of professional life coaching services for undergraduate students.

Life Coaching with Ethnically Diverse and Minority Students

The results of this study suggest that while life coaching has positive effects across several domains for all undergraduate students, there appears to be a more significant positive change for students of color who self-select to seek out coaching services. This is a critical finding as it points to the value that life coaching may possess to positively support the mental well-being, career development, and goal achievement of undergraduate students of color. Finding economical ways to increase access to services that have positive impact across these domains will not only be directly beneficial to ethnically diverse students, but also may positively impact the student retention and satisfaction levels at students’ institutions of higher learning, along with increasing the contributions that diverse students will make to the university community as well as greater society.

As previously mentioned, only 10 percent of the population for this study were students of color. To effectively examine the impact of life coaching with ethnically diverse students, more research is needed at institutions with larger populations of BIPOC students. HBCUs, along with universities that have a higher percentage of students of color, may be important locations to offer professional life coaching. Replications of this study are needed to compare pre- and post-coaching gains. Additionally, studies that examine whether there are differences in student retention, mental well-being, and overall satisfaction between those who have and those who have not engaged in coaching services would provide additional contributions to the literature.

As a final item to consider, students who engaged in life coaching self-selected to receive this service. To initiate a coaching relationship students must be aware of the service and be educated on what life coaching is, as well as the benefits. Ethnically diverse students must be educated on life coaching and given opportunities to ask questions and develop a sense of safety to effectively engage in coaching. Increasing the number of positive psychology and coaching psychology classes offered within the university settings could be another way to increase exposure to the coaching field. A central aspect of engaging in positive psychology courses (of which coaching is the professional application) is the expectation students will also test what is learned through daily application (Grant & Atad, 2021). A future study may include interviewing students of color who report positive experiences with life coaching to learn more about what led them to pursue life coaching and what promoted their active engagement in the coaching relationship. As noted in previous research, positive psychology needs to be more focused on multicultural issues and diversity (Lomas et al., 2021).

Limitations of the Current Research

Notably, there are a few limitations to the current study. One limitation is the generalizability of the study. This study was conducted with students from a small, liberal arts university located in the Midwest region of the United States. Future research should be conducted with undergraduate student populations from a diverse range of university campuses and communities to improve the generalizability of the results. The results from this study indicate significant gains for students of color across several domains. Future research studies should continue to examine the unique impacts of life coaching for ethnically and racially diverse students (McGill et al., 2018). Such research may not only seek to tease out and confirm the particular types of coaching interventions for which students of color are receiving positive outcomes, but also engage in studies that specifically target BIPOC students’ responses to coaching interventions that focus on identifying, developing and utilizing students’ strengths, in light of the increasing evidence suggesting that focusing on clients’ strengths can be productive (Biswas-Deiner, 2020).

An additional limitation of this study is that there was no control group to compare the impact of coaching with those who have not been coached. Future research can explore experimental study designs with university student populations.

Last, students in this study were self-selected for this research due to their personal interest in life coaching. It can be suggested that students who sign up for life coaching are those who are motivated to change. This idea may suggest students who pursue coaching represent a greater desire for positive change and growth than students who do not seek coaching. An additional consideration when interpreting the results of the current study surround the potential other factors that may have contributed to the benefits found. These include greater familiarity with undergraduate experiences, greater maturity and personal growth gained through developmental experiences through the timeframe between the pre-coaching and post-coaching surveys, and potential impacts of others on one’s values, choice of academic major, etc. (e.g., friends, professors, parents or caregivers, mental health therapists). Future experimental research can attempt to minimize potential impacts of other factors to gain better insight surrounding the impact of life coaching specifically.

Conclusions and Future Study

In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest coaching to be an effective intervention that may benefit undergraduate students across several psychological domains. Professional life coaching may be able to help increase self-confidence and satisfaction in academic pursuits, increase awareness of individual values and strengths, and provide successful goal setting and attainment. Gains across every domain tested were significant for student participants, with increased self-confidence in choice of major reported as the area most impacted by life coaching. This research suggests added credibility to the growing evidence that life coaching may be an effective tool for students to achieve academic success and personal growth, while also potentially increasing the likelihood of institutional retention.

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… you’ve pretty much nailed the process of helping students figure out who they are. I enjoyed every minute of Life Coaching, and plan to come back each year I am here.	… was excellent at helping me think organizationally through my challenges. [My coach] taught me to find peace in my values rather than trying to please others, and for that I am very thankful!
It was an amazing experience. It was a time that I really valued and looked forward to.	This was a very safe and flexible space to figure out what is next.
I appreciate [my coach] motivating me to keep pushing forward and accepting myself and my goals.	Life coaching was very helpful in helping me understand my core values, areas I work best in, and how my interests can align with my future work.
It was the first time I had life coaching and I really appreciated the way that I was heard. I learned new things about myself on a deeper level than I ever had before.	You helped me at the beginning and end of my hard journey, and I couldn’t be more thankful.
I appreciated how instead of directly answering my questions, [my coach] would ask another question or say a phrase that would lead to me answering the question on my own. This left me learning just how capable I am!	I would share with others all positive things regarding Life Coaching. This experience has been wonderful, and I have enjoyed being able to meet with a coach one-to-one. I would share how I was given different challenges through the times my coach and I met. . . I was able to “try on” different majors and found this helpful.
It is amazing to sit and get what your needs are and help to guide you the right way to be successful in the future.	I would highly recommend life coaching if you are ready and willing to get honest and a little bit uncomfortable!
Life coaching was a very productive place to process.	Life coaching was really helpful for me! You get out of it what you put in.
Everyone should do it! I think there can be a lot of value in learning deeper about yourself and why we do certain things.	It truly helped me explore my life and values and find ways to incorporate them into my life on a day-to-day basis.
That it has brought more peace and gratification into my life.	It is an amazing experience. Everyone should do it!
I would highly recommend this to others! It’s very helpful and makes you think about deep topics you normally wouldn’t think of.	It gave me the support I needed when I was going through a time of transition and uncertainty.
[Coaching] has a way of picking through the gunk in your brain to help you figure out what you’re really feeling.	It’s very insightful and can help you when you’re struggling to find your purpose.
These meetings became something I was always looking forward to. Having someone to process life changes and interpret reactions with was wonderful and took off so much of my mental load this semester. I learned a lot about myself, my instincts, and my character.	Life Coaching is an awesome way to learn more about yourself in order to be a better student, friend, and person by becoming self-aware. If you want to find your purpose or even ways you can better interact with the world you are in, life coaching would be a good way to do just that!
Life coaching helped me think in a different way about my decisions. The questions that were asked were very helpful and made me stop and really think about it. This then helped me come to some conclusions.	[My coach] always listened well and knew exactly what to say in response. No matter how bizarre a topic was, [my coach] never appeared phased. [My coach] asked questions that challenged me to think deeply about why I am the way I am. [My coach] also gave sincere affirmations about my strengths, goals, and overall healing this semester. I appreciated that so much. I feel that [my coach] played a huge role in my becoming a healthier person this semester, and I’m immensely grateful for that!