Form rotation, figure directionality, and figure-ground discrimination were evaluated before and after 10 days of vestibular or aerobic exercises for 30 boys (7 to 12 yr.) who showed problems in learning, reading, and inattention. Eight subjects had normal vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) responses as determined by caloric and rotational testing. They were assigned to a vestibular program (Control Group I). The 22 subjects with abnormal VOR test responses were randomly assigned to either aerobic exercises (Experimental Group II) or a vestibular program (Experimental Group III). Spatial perceptual test scores varied widely, with the majority performing below age-expected norms but no significant differences on vestibular status appeared. Postexercise, only subjects completing the vestibular program made significant gains: Experimental Group III (abnormal VOR) made significant gains in accuracy and normal test responses compared to the other groups, and Control Group I made significantly greater gains in speed of spatial perceptual processing. For boys with problems in learning, reading, inattention, and vestibular function, a vestibular exercise program complementing a traditional or special educational program may enhance the spatial perceptual skills needed for reading.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (3rd ed.) Washington, DC: Author, 1980.
2.
AndersonJ. R.Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, 1980.
3.
AyresA. J.Sensory integration and learning disabilities. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, 1973.
4.
AyresA. J.Southern California Postrotary Nystagmus Test. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, 1975.
5.
AyresA. J.Learning disabilities and the vestibular system. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1978, 11, 18–29.
6.
BalohR. W.HonrubiaV.Clinical neurophysiology of the vestibular system. Philadelphia, PA: Davis, 1979.
7.
BassC. K.Running can modify classroom behavior. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 160.
8.
BlackF. O.NashnerL. M.Vestibulo-spinal control differs in patients with reduced versus distorted vestibular function. Acta Otolaryngologica, Supplement, 1984, 406, 110–114.
9.
BoderE.JarricoS.The Boder Test of Reading-Spelling Patterns. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1982.
10.
BrownB.Haegerstrom-PortnoyG.YinglingC. D.HerronJ.GalenD.MarcusM.Dyslexic children have normal vestibular responses to rotation. Archives of Neurology, 1983, 40, 370–373.
11.
CheeF. W.KreutzbergJ. R.ClarkD.Semicircular canal stimulation in cerebral palsy children. American Journal of Physical Therapy, 1978, 58, 1071–1075.
12.
ConnersC. K.Teacher rating scale for use in drug studies with children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1969, 126, 884–888.
13.
deQuirosJ. B.Diagnosis of vestibular dysfunction in learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1979, 9, 52–58.
Department of Health Education And Welfare, Office Of Education. Education of handicapped children. Federal Register, Tuesday, August 23, 1977, Part II.
ElsomS. D.Self-management of hyperactivity: children's use of jogging. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1981, 4(8), 31768.
18.
EviatorL.MirandaL.EviatorD.FreemanK.BorkowskiM.Development of nystagmus in response to vestibular stimulation in infants. Annals of Neurology, 1979, 3, 508–514.
19.
ForssbergH.NashnerL. M.Ontogenetic development of postural control in man: adaptation to altered support and visual conditions during stance. Journal of Neuroscience, 1982, 2, 545–552.
20.
FrankJ.LevinsonH. N.Dysmetric dyslexia and dyspraxia. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1973, 12, 690–701.
21.
FrankJ.LevinsonH. N.Compensatory mechanisms in cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction, dysmetric dyslexia and dyspraxia. Academic Therapy, 1976, 12, 5–27.
22.
HardyR. C.EliotJ.BurlingameK.Factor structure of shortened Children's Embedded Figures Test for different age groups. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1986, 63, 479–486.
23.
HermanR.MaulucciR.StuyckJ.Development of plasticity of visual and vestibular-generated eye movements. Experimental Brain Research, 1982, 47, 69–78.
24.
HorakF. B.Shumway-CookA.CroweT.BlackO. F.Vestibular function and motor proficiency of children with impaired hearing or with learning disability and motor impairments. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1988, 30, 64–79.
25.
HowardI. P.Human visual orientation. New York: Wiley, 1982.
JagerJ.HennV.Habituation of the VOR in the monkey after sinusoidal rotation in the dark. Experimental Brain Research, 1981, 41, 108–114.
28.
KagaK.SuzukiJ.MarshR.TanakaH.Influence of labyrinthine hypoactivity on gross motor development in infants. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1981, 374, 413–420.
29.
KeatingN. R.A comparison of duration of nystagmus as measured by the Southern California Postrotary Nystagmus Test and electronystagmography. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1979, 33, 92–97.
30.
LambD. R.Physiology of exercise: response and adaptations. New York: Macmillan, 1978.
31.
MagrunM. W.OttenbacherK.McCueS.KeefeR.Effects of vestibular stimulation on spontaneous use of verbal language in developmentally delayed children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1981, 35, 101–104.
32.
MannC. W.Berthelot-BerryN. H.DauteriveH. J.The perception of the vertical: I. Visual and nonlabyrinthine cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1949, 39, 538–547.
33.
MarascuiloL. A.McSweeneyM.Nonparametric and distribution-free methods for the social sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1977.
34.
MarascuiloL. A.SerlinR. C.A common sense approach to theoretical statistics: a handbook for researchers and investigators. Berkeley, CA: Univer. of California, 1981.
35.
MathogR. H.PeppardS. B.Exercise and recovery from vestibular injury. American Journal of Otolaryngology, 1983, 3, 397–407.
36.
NashnerL. M.BlackF. O.WallC.Adaptation to altered support and visual conditions during stance: patients with vestibular deficits. Journal of Neuroscience, 1982, 2, 536–544.
OttenbacherK. J.AbbotC.HaleyD. L.WatsonP. J.Human figure drawing ability and vestibular processing dysfunction in learning-disabled children. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1984, 40, 1084–1088.
39.
OttenbacherK. J.PetersenP.The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment: quantitative review of the literature. Clinical Pediatrics, 1983, 22, 428–433.
40.
PalmerS.BucherN.Configural effects in perceived pointing of ambiguous triangles. Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance, 1981, 7, 88–114.
41.
PolatajkoH. J.A critical look at vestibular dysfunction in learning disabled children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1985, 27, 283–292.
42.
PotegalM.DayM. J.AbrahamL.Maze orientation, visual and vestibular cues in two-maze spontaneous alternation of rats. Physiological Psychology, 1977, 5, 414–420.
43.
RapinI.Hypoactive labyrinths and motor development. Clinical Pediatrics, 1974, 13, 922–937.
44.
RockI.An introduction to perception. New York: Macmillan, 1975.
45.
SolanH. A.Deficient eye movement patterns in achieving high school students: three case histories. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1985, 18, 66–70.
46.
ThompsonR.Abnormal learning and forgetting of individual spatial reversal problems in brain damaged rats. Physiological Psychology, 1983, 11, 35–46.
TigheT. J.LeatonR. N.Habituation: perspectives from child development, animal behavior and neurophysiology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1976.
49.
WeeksA.Effects of vestibular stimulation on human development: Part 2. Effects on mental retardation, emotionally disturbed and learning disabled. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1978, 33, 450–547.
50.
WitkinH.OltmanP. K.RaskinE.KarpS. A.A manual for the Embedded Figures tests. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1971.
51.
YoungR. J.Effect of regular exercise on cognition and personality. Medicine and Science in Sports, 1978, 10, 51.
