Variability effects on learning, retention, and transfer of motor skills have been a main issue for scientists involved in laboratory and field research. Variable practice is intended as parameter variations of a generalized motor program as well as rehearsal of different motor programs. Although the benefits deriving from variable practice on motor skill retention appear quite robust in laboratory settings, field investigations have produced mixed results. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of different variable schedules on the retention of a complex motor skill in a physical education setting. 61 elementary school children were assigned to Blocked/Nonvariable, Blocked/Variable, Serial/Nonvariable, or Serial/Variable schedules, and practiced two tasks (throwing and hurdle running) and a complex skill (jumping) across 14 lessons. Improved performance in the complex skill was found after practice, with the Serial/Nonvariable group outperforming all other groups. Therefore, the rehearsal of different motor programs was beneficial for jumping skill retention, whereas parameter variation was not.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BattigW. F. (1979) The flexibility of human memory. In CermakL. S.CraikF. I. M. (Eds.), Levels of processing in human memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 23–44.
2.
BortoliL.RobazzaC.DurigonV.CarraC. (1992) Effects of contextual interference on learning technical sports skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 555–562.
3.
BoyceB. A.Del ReyP. (1990) Designing applied research in a naturalistic setting using a contextual interference paradigm. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 18, 189–200.
4.
BradyF. (1998) A theoretical and empirical review of the contextual interference effect and the learning of motor skills. Quest, 50, 266–293.
5.
CatalanoJ. F.KleinerB. M. (1984) Distant transfer and practice variability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 851–856.
6.
Del ReyP.WhitehurstM.WoodJ. M. (1983) Effects of experience and contextual interference on learning and transfer by boys and girls. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 56, 581–582.
7.
GoodeS. L.MagillR. A. (1986) Contextual interference effects in learning three badminton serves. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57, 308314.
8.
GoodwinJ. E.GrimesC. R.EckersonJ. M.GordonP. M. (1998) Effect of different quantities of variable practice on acquisition, retention, and transfer of an applied motor skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 147–151.
9.
HallK. G.DomínguezD. A.CavazosR. (1994) Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 835–841.
10.
HebertE. P.LandinD.SolmonM. A. (1996) Practice schedule effects on the performance and learning of low- and high-skilled students: an applied study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 52–58.
11.
JarusT.GoveroverY. (1999) Effecrs of contextual interference and age on acquisition, retention, and transfer of motor skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88, 437–447.
12.
KerrR.BoothB. (1978) Specific and varied practice of motor skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 46, 395–401.
13.
LandinD. K.HebertE. P.FairweatherM. (1993) The effects of variable practice on the performance of a basketball skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 232–237.
14.
LeeT. D.MagillR. A. (1983) The locus of contextual interference in motor-skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 730–746.
15.
LeeT. D.MagillR. A. (1985) Can forgetting facilitate skill acquisition? In GoodmanD.WilbergR. B.FranksI. M. (Eds.), Differing perspectives in motor learning, memory, and control. Amstetdanr. North-Holland. 3–22.
16.
LeeT. D.MagillR. A.WeeksD. J. (1985) Influence of practice schedule on testing schema theory predictions in adults. Journal of Motor Behavior, 17, 283–299.
17.
LeeT. D.SwinnenS. P.SerrienD. J. (1994) Cognitive effort and motor learning. Quest, 46, 328–344.
18.
LiY.WrightD. L. (2000) An assessment of the attention demands during random- and blocked-practice schedules. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53A, 591–606.
19.
MagillR. A. (1998) Motor learning: concepts and applications. (5th ed.) Dubuque, LA: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
20.
MagillR. A.HallK. G. (1990) A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Human Movement Science, 9, 241–289.
21.
NewellK. M.ShapiroD. C. (1976) Variability of practice and transfer of training: some evidence toward a schema view of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 8, 233–243.
22.
PigottR. E.ShapiroD. C. (1984) Motor schema: the structure of the variability session. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 55, 41–45.
23.
PollockB. J.LeeT. D. (1997) Dissociated contextual interference effects in children and adults. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 84, 851–858.
24.
PrahlB. K.EdwardsW. H. (1995) A field test of contextual interference effects on skill acquisition in pickle-ball with seventh-grade boys and girls. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(Suppl.), A-55. [Abstract of completed research].
25.
ProteauL.BlandinY.AlainC.DorionA. (1994) The effects of the amount and variability of practice on the learning of a multi-segmented motor task. Acta Psychologica, 85, 61–74.
26.
SchmidtR. A. (1975) A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82, 225–260.
27.
SchmidtR. A.LeeT. D. (1999) Motor control and learning: a behavioral emphasis. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
28.
SchmidtR. A.WrisbergC. A. (2000) Motor learning and performance: a problem-based learning approach. (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
29.
ShapiroD. C.SchmidtR. A. (1982) The schema theory: recent evidence and developmental implications. In KelsoJ. A. S.ClarkJ. E. (Eds.), The development of movement control and coordination. New York: Wiley. 113–150.
30.
SheaC. H.KohlR. M. (1990) Specificity and variability of practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 169–177.
31.
SheaC. H.KohlR. M. (1991) Composition of practice: influence on the retention of motor skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 187–195.
SheaJ. B.MorganR. L. (1979) Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 179–187.
34.
SheaJ. B.ZimnyS. T. (1983) Context effects in memory and learning movement information. In MagillR. A. (Ed.), Memory and control of action. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 345–366.
35.
SheaJ. B.ZimnyS. T. (1988) Knowledge incorporation in motor representation. In MeijerO. G.RothK. (Eds.), Complex movement behavior: the motor-action controversy. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Pp 289–314.
36.
SherwoodD. E. (1996) The benefits of random variable practice for spatial accuracy and error detection in a rapid aiming task. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 35–43.
37.
ShewokisP. A.SnowJ. (1997) Is the contextual interference effect generalizable to non-laboratory tasks?Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(Suppl.), A-64. [Abstract of completed research].
38.
TsutsuiS.LeeT. D.HodgesN. J. (1998) Contextual interference in learning new patterns of bimanual coordination. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30, 151–157.
39.
Van RossumJ. H. A. (1990) Schmidt's schema theory: the empirical base of the variability of practice hypothesis. Human Movement Science, 9, 387–435.
40.
WrisbergC. A.LiuZ. (1991) The effect of contextual variety on the practice, retention and transfer of an applied motor skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 406–412.
41.
WulfG. (1991) The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5, 123–134.
