Antecedents of Employees’ Involvement in Work-Related Learning

Micro level: Sociodemographic characteristics

The first demographic variable to be highlighted is age. In general, results of the studies (n = 4) show that age is negatively related to a learning intention; this association can be considered small to moderate (Maurer et al., 2003; Renkema et al., 2009). Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) and Sanders et al. (2011) refined this result and showed that middle-aged employees in fact demonstrate the highest learning intentions in comparison with their older and younger colleagues. Sanders et al. (2011) also found that employees older than 56 years have the lowest learning intentions. In addition, three studies did not find a statistically significant relationship (Kyndt et al., 2011; Noe, 1996; Zoogah, 2010).

Regarding gender, Sanders et al. (2011) found that women had higher learning intentions than men. In addition, two studies did not find gender differences (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Zoogah, 2010). Elman and O’Rand (2002) did confirm the result of Sanders et al. (2011) when they connected the willingness to retrain to job insecurity. They found that women are more willing to retrain because they belong to a group that is more at risk of losing its job. In the same research, they also found that employees who are responsible for children (in terms of income) are more likely to retrain (Elman & O’Rand, 2002). The study of Kyndt et al. (2011) did not find any differences between employees with or without children.

Finally, unlike the results on actual participation (see infra), the level of education of the employee is not such a strong predictor of an employee’s learning intention. For example, Zoogah (2010) did not find a statistically significant relationship. Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) found that employees who obtained degree-level qualifications demonstrate a higher learning intention. Elman and O’Rand (2002) showed that employees without a college degree are less likely to engage in future learning activities. Kyndt et al. (2011), whose study focused on low-educated employees, that is, those without a starter’s qualification for higher education, found that those employees without any form of educational degree had the lowest learning intentions; however, the effect size was rather small.

Micro level: Personal characteristics

Above we already discussed that prior participation is a positive predictor of an employee’s learning intention. This prior participation also has an indirect effect on employees’ learning intentions; the experience of this prior participation influences the attitude of the employee toward learning, which in turn is an important predictor of an employee’s intention to participate in future development activities (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Other research studies also confirmed the influence of an employee’s attitude toward learning (Bates, 2001; Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Renkema, 2006; Sanders et al., 2011). The relation between attitude and intention can be described as a moderate to strong relationship (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Another important variable within the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) for the intention of individuals is the subjective norm. A positive relationship between the subjective norm and a learning intention was identified by empirical research (Renkema, 2006; Sanders et al., 2011). The reported beta coefficient indicates that subjective norm is a moderately strong predictor. Sanders et al. (2011) stated that the perceived value attached to employees’ training participation of significant others, such as colleagues, family, and friends, should be considered when trying to increase the motivation to participate in training.

In the theoretical background, the theory of planned behavior and the role of perceived behavioral control in the decision-making process were introduced. A few empirical studies (n = 2) investigated the relationship between perceived behavioral control and learning intention. The study of Sanders et al. (2011) found a moderately strong and positive relationship between perceived behavioral control and learning intention. Zoogah (2010) was unable to confirm this.

Another personal characteristic that is taken up in the research on employees’ learning intentions is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief individuals have in their own capacities, in this case the capacity to learn. Four out of five studies investigating the relation between self-efficacy and learning intention found a positive relationship. Kyndt et al. (2011) and Renkema (2006) related self-efficacy to a formal learning intention, whereas Maurer et al. (2003) and Maurer and Tarulli (1994) found a relationship with a learning intention pertaining to formal and informal learning activities. The study of Renkema et al. (2009) was the only study that investigated self-efficacy and did not find a statistically significant relationship. In line with the results on self-efficacy, Maurer et al. (2003) found that if employees perceive themselves to possess the qualities needed for learning in terms of general skills and abilities, they report a higher learning intention.

In total, three studies included career-related variables. Sanders et al. (2011), investigating a formal learning intention, found that career orientation was positively correlated with this learning intention. The more employees are working toward certain career goals in a (more or less) strategic way, the more likely they are to engage in future formal learning activities (Sanders et al., 2011). In addition, Kyndt et al. (2011) found that self-directedness in career processes, which concerns influencing the course of one’s career, is positively related to the intention of an employee to engage in formal learning activities. This relationship can be considered moderately strong. Maurer et al. (2003), who focused on the intention to engage in both formal and informal development activities, investigated the role of career insight, defined as the awareness of strengths and weaknesses and thoughts about career plans.

Finally, Noe (1996) found that career exploration—more specifically if employees had sought information about job areas that interested them—is moderately strong and positively related a learning intention. In sum, it appears that the more conscious an employee is in thinking about his or her career perspectives, the stronger his or her intention to learn will be. In addition, research showed that employees with a higher organizational commitment presented a slightly lower learning intention (Renkema et al., 2009). The indication that employees who are more likely to change to another organization develop a higher learning intention can be explained by the wish to remain employable; however, Renkema et al. (2009) noted that this is not a very important predictor.

The research of Maurer and Tarulli (1994) adds the finding that a higher need for self-improvement relates positively to the intention to engage in development activities including both formal and informal learning activities. The motivation to transfer—that is, the motivation to actually apply on the work floor what has been learned—and previous transfer success also have a positive relationship with learning intention (Bates, 2001). Zoogah’s (2010) study took a different approach in comparison with the other studies. He investigated learning from a disadvantaged perspective and focused on individual relative deprivation. Results showed that when employees recognized that they have been disadvantaged and feel resentment, their formal learning intention is higher (Zoogah, 2010).

Micro level: Job characteristics

Half of the studies investigating an employee’s learning intention (n = 8) considered job-related characteristics when investigating employees’ learning intentions. First, we focus on tenure, a variable highly correlated with age. It is therefore no surprise that the results are in line with the results on age and show a negative relation with learning intention (Kyndt et al., 2011; Renkema et al., 2009). Elman and O’Rand (2002) confirmed that more experienced employees were less willing to retrain. However, two studies did not find statistically significant results (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Zoogah, 2010).

Kyndt et al. (2011) found in their study that the more job autonomy employees perceive—the more freedom they perceive in how they go about their job—the higher their formal learning intention is. Two studies investigating the influence of job involvement on the intention to engage in both formal and informal learning activities found that job involvement is statistically significantly related to a learning intention (Maurer et al., 2003; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994). This means that the more employees consider their work to be central in their life, the higher their learning intention is. Job satisfaction in turn is related moderately positively to a job-related learning intention but negatively to a career-related learning intention (Renkema et al., 2009). Finally, the study of Doornbos et al. (2004) showed that the intentionality of work-related learning varies across work domains. However, it needs to be mentioned that this study solely focused on police work; as a consequence these work domains are very specific and difficult to generalize.

Meso level: Learning activity

The characteristics of the learning activity were also investigated in a small number of studies (n = 6). Aspects of the learning activity that have been investigated are the expected outcomes or benefits. Intrinsic outcomes such as interest and personal value were found to relate positively to employees’ learning intentions (Maurer et al., 2003; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994). The results concerning the extrinsic benefits (e.g., pay or promotion) are less clear: Maurer et al. (2003) identified a negative relationship, whereas Maurer and Tarulli (1994) found a positive relationship. Kyndt et al.’s (2011) results were in line with those of Maurer and Tarulli (1994) and showed that perceived financial benefits relate positively to a learning intention. In general, the effect of expected outcomes seems to be rather limited. Pierce and Maurer (2009) differentiated between individual and organizational benefits. They found that perceived individual benefits related positively to the intention to participate in future learning activities, whereas perceived organizational benefits related negatively to their learning intention. Apparently, the fact that the organization benefits from employees’ participation in learning does not enhance the learning intention of the employee.

Zoogah (2010) investigated employees’ counterfactual beliefs. These are the beliefs an employee has when looking back (often with regret) to a missed learning opportunity. When employees expect better outcomes (in comparison to the current situation) from participating in a learning activity, their learning intention is higher.

In terms of content, the study of Elman and O’Rand (2002) showed that employees were more willing to retrain themselves in technical skills than professional and managerial skills.

Macro level: Organization

The studies investigating the support for learning within the work context in general show that support relates positively to a learning intention; a positive relationship was found for supervisor or management support (Maurer & Tarulli, 1994; Sanders et al., 2011), coworker support (Sanders et al., 2011), and general work support including from supervisors, coworkers, and subordinates (Maurer et al., 2003). Renkema et al. (2009) confirmed this positive relationship for job-related learning intentions, but did not find a statistically significant relationship with career-related learning intentions. Only the study of Pierce and Maurer (2009) contrasted these results with a negative relationship between organizational support and learning intention. Noe (1996) did not confirm the relationship between management support and learning intention.

Other studies included support in a broader concept of learning culture (Bates, 2001) or learning climate (Armstrong-Stassen & Schlosser, 2008). Bates (2001) showed that a continuous learning culture, where learning is considered a key responsibility of all employees, and which values and supports learning and its job application through formal and informal systems, is not correlated to a formal and informal learning intention. Armstrong-Stassen and Schlosser (2008) found that a job development climate characterized by the degree to which jobs are designed to promote learning is positively associated with a similar learning intention. Renkema (2006) did not find a statistically significant correlation between a learning intention and the perceived dialogical learning culture, which combines an appreciation of learning and the possibility of discussing development. Another aspect of the climate within an organization pertains to the stereotyping of employees. The study of Gaillard and Desmette (2010) focused on the effect of negative stereotyping of older employees on their learning intention. In their experimental study they found that older employees who were confronted with negative stereotyping demonstrated lower learning intentions than those who were not. The reported effect size showed that this was a rather strong effect.

Renkema (2006) also conducted an experimental study, in which he investigated if the learning intention differed between employees with and without an individual learning account, which is a combination of a professional development plan and an individual financing mechanism. This study was conducted in the sectors of both technical installation and elderly care. In the technical installation sector, employees with an individual learning account presented higher learning intentions than those without. In the elderly care sector, the individual learning account did not change the results. In addition, it was found that an individual learning account had an equalizing effect between age groups.

Maurer and Tarulli (1994) investigated the influence of a company policy that facilitated participation in learning and development activities. Remarkably, they found that after controlling for other personal and environmental variables, this company policy was negatively related to the learning intention of employees. However, the relationship was rather limited in strength. Similarly, Zoogah (2010) found that unfair procedures in terms of offering training and promotions within organizations increase the learning intentions of employees. This negative relationship between procedural justice and learning intention is explained by the fact that this injustice serves as a wake-up call for employees.

Employees in small firms present lower learning intentions, whereas employees in high technology manufacturing have high learning intentions, probably because the latter industry is confronted with very rapid changes (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994). Regarding the income of an employee, it can be noticed that employees with higher wages are less likely to retrain (Elman & O’Rand, 2002). Finally, two studies investigating the role of a full-time or part-time contract contradict each other: Kyndt et al. (2011) found that full-time employees have a lower learning intention, whereas Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) found lower learning intentions for part-time employees.

Macro level: Broader context

Similar to the characteristics of the job and learning activity, until now little attention has been given to the broader context of the employees when investigating their learning intention. Elman and O’Rand (2002) investigated the relationship between the likelihood of losing one’s job and the willingness to retrain through formal education. They found that groups of employees (women, non-Whites, and individuals holding multiple jobs) who were more at risk of losing their job were more willing to retrain (Elman & O’Rand, 2002). Sanders et al. (2011) did not find a statistically significant relationship between job insecurity and learning intention.

The results regarding the organization already showed that the support within the organization is an important predictor of a learning intention (e.g., Noe, 1996; Sanders et al., 2011). In addition, Maurer et al. (2003) identified support from outside the workplace (e.g., family and friends) as a modest positive predictor of a learning intention pertaining to formal and informal learning.

Micro level: Sociodemographic characteristics

The majority of the selected research studies (n = 30) devoted attention to the role of sociodemographic variables in the involvement in work-related learning. Regarding gender, research often confirms the idea that female employees have a lower degree of participation in formal vocational education than do men (Albert et al., 2010; Lauber, Taylor, Decker, & Knuth, 2010; Leuven & Oosterbeek, 1999; Oosterbeek, 1996). Harris (1999) and Selmer and Leung (2003) found that women are offered fewer training opportunities, whereas Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) found that when training is longer (i.e., takes up more time), more men than women participate. In general, the research literature is mixed about the effect of gender on participation. Further analysis of the situation nuances these findings and shows that sex-related discrimination decreases (Green, 1993) and that differences are a result of the fact that women, more often than men, are employed in jobs where, in general, vocational education is less common (Oosterbeek, 1996).

The research of Simpson and Stroh (2002), however, contradicts this. They found that in 1995 women participated more in development activities than did men, and they were also able to attribute this to the occupational segregation. Other researchers (n = 3) also found that women participate more in formal career-related continuous learning activities than do men (Rowold & Shilling, 2006; Sala-Velasco, 2009; Thangavelu et al., 2011). Finally, several studies (n = 4) did not find differences between men and women (Garavan, Carberry, O’Malley, & O’Donnel, 2010; Lauber et al., 2010; Tharenou, 2001; Xiao & Tsang, 2004). Tharenou (1997), who conducted his study in the public sector, attributes the lack of difference between the participation of men and women to the regulations regarding gender equality in the public sector. Based on the comparison of age groups, Taylor and Urwin (2001) argued that women have caught up with men and that differences have disappeared over the years.

In addition to the majority of studies (n = 13) that investigated the relation between gender and formal learning, three studies were found that took both formal and informal learning into account when comparing men and women (Booth, 1991; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Taris & Feij, 2004). However, they did not differentiate among these types of learning. The results of these studies also present an ambiguous image of the relation between gender and work-related learning. Booth (1991) found that women undertake fewer learning activities, whereas Ito and Brotheridge (2005) obtained higher scores for women and Taris and Feij (2004) ended up with a non–statistically significant relationship.

With regard to marital status, Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) and Thangavelu et al. (2011) found that unmarried individuals take more part in formal learning activities than married persons, whereas Montizaan, Cörvers, and de Grip (2009) found the opposite. Simpson and Stroh (2002) found only an interaction effect of marital status and gender, suggesting that family responsibilities have a continued negative effect on women’s access to formal training in occupations where female representation is not high. However, Harris (1999) found that single men participate less. Others did not find a statistically significant effect of marital status (Forrier & Sels, 2003; Oosterbeek, 1996; Taylor & Urwin, 2001). The study of Booth (1991), which was the only study that included formal and informal learning activities when investigating the relationship with marital status, also did not find a statistically significant result. In conclusion, it can be stated that the results for marital status are inconclusive.

Subsequently, the relationship between having children and involvement in formal work-related learning is discussed. There are four studies that did not find a statistically significant relationship (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Taylor & Urwin, 2001; Tharenou, 1997, 2001). However, Tharenou (1997) did argue that women with (younger) children are less likely to be full-time employed, which reduces the possible impact of this family factor. This explanation stems from the fact that four research studies indeed found that having children results in a lower participation (Booth, 1991; Green, 1993; Harris, 1999; Simpson & Stroh, 2002). Harris (1999) found that especially having children younger than age 4 reduced female participation, whereas having children between 5 and 11 years old reduced male participation. Booth (1991), who took both formal and informal learning into account, also found a negative relationship between having children and work-related learning for women.

There seems to be a general consensus among researchers about the negative relation between age and formal work-related learning (e.g., Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Harris, 1999; Taylor & Urwin, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998). As employees get older, they participate less in training. However, several nuances have been formulated regarding this relationship, suggesting that the relationship is less direct than it might seem. On one hand, Oosterbeek (1996) put forward that

older workers have a lower probability of working for a firm that offers training opportunities, but given that a worker is employed by a firm that provides training, the worker’s age has no influence on the probability of his/her being selected for a training program. (p. 803)

On the other hand, both Sala-Velasco (2009) and Thangavelu et al. (2011) found that the relation between age and formal participation is positive until a certain point, after which participation declines again. Sala-Velasco (2009) argued for a quadratic relationship, whereas Thangavelu and colleagues (2011) placed the cutoff point at 37 years of age.

In addition, it has been found that the negative relation between age and vocational educational participation is stronger for men than women. A minority of research studies did not find a statistically significant relationship with age (e.g., Blau et al., 2008; Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999). Studies focusing on both formal and informal learning (without differentiating between them) showed similar results. Booth (1991) described a statistically significant negative result. However, a majority of these studies found that age was not statistically significant in the prediction of formal and informal learning (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Noe, 1996; Taris & Feij, 2004). Finally, there were two studies that investigated formal and informal learning separately. Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) focused solely on informal learning and found no statistically significant correlations between age and prior participation in informal learning and learning success. They did find that age was positively correlated with learning opportunities at work. In addition, Chan and Auster (2003) investigated the role of subjective age (feeling old) and relative age (feeling old in comparison with colleagues) in a group of librarians. Their results showed that employees who feel older participate less in informal learning activities (Chan & Auster, 2003).

The initially obtained level of education of an individual is another important predictor of participation in learning activities. Research has shown that the level of education is an especially important predictor of participation in formal training (e.g., Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Tharenou, 1997): Employees with a higher level of education tend to participate more in such training (e.g., Albert et al., 2010; Green, 1993; Montizaan et al., 2009; Tabassi & Bakar, 2009; Taylor & Urwin, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998; Xiao & Tsang, 2004). Tabassi and Bakar (2009) identified a low level of education as a barrier for participation. Thangavelu et al. (2011) also found that higher educated employees participate more in formal work-related learning; however, they argued that low-skilled workers would benefit more from training. Oosterbeek (1996) contributed that a higher education degree increases both the likelihood of working for a firm offering training and the likelihood of receiving training. Two studies, including both formal and informal learning, also found that level of education was positively related to work-related learning (Booth, 1991; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005). Harris (1999) found that the effect of educational level was stronger for men. In contrast, Booth (1991) found that the relationship is stronger for women.

A limited number of studies included the ethnicity of the individuals in their research. Taylor and Urwin (2001) found that ethnic minorities participate less in formal work-related learning. In line with this finding, Harris (1999) found that non-White men in the United Kingdom also participate less. Oosterbeek (1996) conducted a study in the Netherlands that showed that employees with a non-Dutch nationality have a higher likelihood of working for an organization offering training. Leuven and Oosterbeek (1999) confirmed this result in the Netherlands, but found that in Canada, Switzerland, and the United States immigrants participate less in formal training. Simpson and Stroh (2002) found no effect for race, as did Booth (1991), who looked at both formal and informal learning.

The final demographic variable, social class, was investigated only by Garavan et al. (2010). Their results showed that social class was positively related to participation in formal e-learning activities. Higher social classes participate more in work-related e-learning (Garavan et al., 2010).

Micro level: Personal characteristics

The category of personal characteristics contains the most antecedents of work-related learning (see Table 2). We start by discussing the variables that are considered within the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Prior research found positive correlations between attitude and participation in formal and informal work-related learning (Hurtz & Williams, 2009; Maurer et al., 2002; Maurer et al., 2003). In addition, Hurtz and Williams (2009) showed in their structural equation model that attitude especially influences participation via the intention, whereas Bates (2001) did not find a statistically significant correlation with participation, but reported a positive relation with intention. The study of Hurtz and Williams (2009) was the only one that also investigated the role of subjective norms. They found that subjective norms related positively to participation. Zoogah (2010) identified the positive relation between perceived behavioral control and participation in formal learning as postulated in the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991). However, Hurtz and Williams (2009) remarkably found that perceived behavioral control was moderately negatively related to participation. In addition, they found that voluntariness was related negatively to participation (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). They concluded that if employees have a free choice to participate, they are less likely to participate (Hurtz & Williams, 2009).

Although time is assumed to play a central role in the participation of employees in work-related learning, only a few studies (n = 3) investigated time as such (Brown & McCracken, 2009; Chan & Auster, 2003; Warr & Birdi, 1998). These studies do confirm that a lack of time is an important barrier for the participation in formal learning. The research of Warr and Birdi (1998), however, shows that this relationship is mediated by a motivation to learn. Chan and Auster (2003) were also able to confirm the negative relationship for informal learning. Noe and Wilk (1993) included time within their measure of situational constraints and found that these situational constraints lowered the participation in development activities. Garavan et al. (2010) could not confirm this result for formal work-related e-learning.

Subsequently, we discuss several psychological characteristics of the individual. A first important factor that comes to the fore is self-efficacy. Three studies that investigated a combination of formal and informal learning found that self-efficacy is positively related to participation in development activities (Maurer et al., 2002; Maurer et al., 2003; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994). Maurer et al. (2002), however, confirmed this only for off-the-job learning activities and not for on-the-job learning activities. Blau et al. (2008) related self-efficacy to formal organizational development activities but not to professional development activities. The first category of developmental activities focuses on the organization. Through organization-specific initiatives, organizational-relevant skills and knowledge are learned, whereas the latter focuses on development activities pertaining to the occupation; profession-relevant skills are learned through profession-based initiatives (Blau et al., 2008).

Noe and Wilk (1993) confirmed a positive relationship of self-efficacy and a subjective measure of participation in formal learning activities based on the perception of the individual; the relationship was not confirmed for the objective measure retrieved from the human resource information system. Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) differentiated between memory self-efficacy and occupational self-efficacy and found that both correlate positively with learning success in informal learning and opportunities to learn at work. When employees believe in their own memory capacities and capacities to exert their profession, their learning success in informal learning and their opportunities to learn at work will be perceived as higher.

Maurer et al. (2003) also measured the employees’ beliefs in their learning qualities, which is closely related to self-efficacy. They found that this belief was positively correlated with participation in formal and informal development activities; however, no direct relationship was found in the structural equation model. The influence of learning qualities was mediated by the learning intention (Maurer et al., 2003). A general learning confidence was found to be positively associated with participation in formal learning (Warr & Birdi, 1998), whereas anxiety during prior learning activities was unrelated to current participation (Maurer et al., 2003). A perceived decline in memory and mental functioning correlated negatively with participation, but was statistically nonsignificant in the structural model (Maurer et al., 2003). The positive correlation of perceived intelligence was also statistically nonsignificant in the structural model (Maurer et al., 2003). Another related construct that was investigated is the perceived level of competence. Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) found that learning competence predicted learning success in informal learning positively, whereas Doornbos et al. (2008) found that a higher perceived competence was negatively associated with the informal learning strategies learning together and learning from experts. Finally, Maurer et al. (2002) focused on the implicit theory of the employee and found that individuals who believe that ability can be enhanced participate more in learning activities, in comparison to those who believe that ability is fixed.

The next subset of variables that is explored pertains to the level of skills and competences and the need individuals experience to improve these. Both Maurer and Tarulli (1994) and Maurer et al. (2003) found that self-need for improvement was positively associated with participation in formal and informal development activities. Bates (2001) investigated the role of basic skills level and proficiency. Math and reading skills were positive predictors for the objective measure regarding work-related learning (Bates, 2001). However, when employees perceive that their reading skills are below what is required for their job, they are more likely to participate in formal development activities (Bates, 2001). Sala-Velasco (2009) added that experienced deficits in competences such as management and negotiating competences increase the likelihood to be offered formal training, whereas being overeducated for a job decreases this likelihood. Finally, Sala-Velasco (2009) showed that employees who graduated in health sciences had a higher likelihood of receiving formal training.

Besides the capacities of employees and their beliefs concerning these capacities, the motivation of the employee is an important antecedent of work-related learning. Several studies focused on different aspects of motivation. A total of six studies focused on the motivation to learn through formal learning activities (Bates, 2001; Garavan et al., 2010; Noe & Wilk, 1993; Tabassi & Bakar, 2009; Tharenou, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998). These studies confirmed the positive relation between motivation to learn (or participate) with actual participation (Bates, 2001; Garavan et al., 2010; Noe & Wilk, 1993; Tharenou, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998). Tabassi and Bakar (2009) showed that having no motivation was an important barrier for the participation in formal learning.

Hurtz and Williams (2009) focused on a learning goal orientation. A learning goal orientation represents a general desire to learn new skills and increase competences that are considered important. Their results showed that learning goal orientation is a statistically significant direct predictor of actual participation in formal and informal learning activities. In addition, Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) found that such a learning goal orientation is positively associated with learning success in informal learning, whereas a performance avoidance orientation (concealing a lack of knowledge, skills and abilities) is negatively related to learning success. A self-directed learning orientation is closely related to the notion of a learning goal orientation.

A self-directed learning orientation is a “relative stable tendency to take an active and self-starting approach to work-related learning activities and situations, and to persist in overcoming barriers and setbacks” (Gijbels et al., 2010, p. 243). Such a learning orientation was found to relate positively to developmental behavior (Gijbels et al., 2010; Gijbels, Raemdonck, Vervecken, & Van Herck, 2012). Finally, epistemic beliefs in which learning is considered important and valuable, were also positively related to this learning success (Schulz & Roβnagel, 2010). The above-discussed motivational antecedents show some similarities with the concept of learning intention; however, a learning intention is considered to be more specific (Kyndt et al., 2011). It pertains to an intention to demonstrate a certain behavior, whereas these motivational antecedents describe a more general tendency or belief of the individual. It can be expected that these motivational antecedents would strongly relate to the learning intention of an employee.

In terms of motivation to transfer, two contradicting studies were found. Bates (2001) showed a positive relation between motivation to transfer and participation in formal learning, whereas Noe and Wilk (1993) found a negative relationship. Their results suggest that the more motivated employees are to apply what they learned, the less they perceive these learning activities to be appropriate for their job content. Bates found that expected transfer effort performance is a positive predictor of participation in formal learning. Bates also investigated the expectancy belief regarding the performance outcome, but this was found to be unrelated to participation. Tharenou (2001) confirmed that motivation through expectancy explained participation in training and development. Chan and Auster (2003) confirmed this result for informal learning but not for formal learning.

Research on the relationship between the personality of employees and their participation in work-related learning is scarce. Two studies investigated the role of the personality trait conscientiousness. Conscientiousness is defined as a combination of achievement and dependability (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Individuals higher in achievement set high standards for themselves, are goal directed, and generally try hard to do good work, whereas individuals high in dependability are reliable, thorough, disciplined, and persistent. Simmering et al. (2003) found that conscientiousness was positively related to participation in formal and informal development activities, especially when employees experience a misfit between the autonomy they experience in their job and the autonomy they need or desire.

Besides the above-described personal and psychological characteristics, several variables related to how individuals go about their careers have been investigated. An overall responsibility for career development did not yield a statistically significant relationship with formal work-related learning (Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999); neither did focusing on career goals (Noe, 1996) or career planning (Rowold & Shilling, 2006). However, the distance to such career goals did yield a positive relationship with formal and informal development behavior. The further employees are removed from their career goals, the more they participate (Noe, 1996). Career strategies such as discussing and planning activities to broaden one’s skills used to reach those career goals were found to relate positively to participation in formal learning (Tharenou, 1997).

However, the results of the research of Noe (1996) did not confirm this. The research of Mallon and Walton (2005) confirmed that developing “saleable” skills or remaining employable was as a desired outcome of learning activities. Career exploration—specifically searching information about job areas of interest—can be considered as a specific career strategy (Rowold & Shilling, 2006). Two studies showed that this career exploration was positively associated with participating in formal learning activities (Noe & Wilk, 1993; Rowold & Shilling, 2006). Noe found only an indirect effect via the learning intention of the employee. The final career-related variable that was investigated is career insight. Career insight pertains to “the extent to which a person has knowledge concerning his or her career-related strengths and weaknesses, specific career goals, career plans and current work situation” (Maurer et al., 2003, p. 714). Two studies found positive correlation between career insight and participation in formal and informal learning activities (Maurer et al., 2003; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994). However, Maurer et al.’s (2003) structural model showed that this relationship was indirect via the learning intention.

In terms of the commitment of employees toward their career or job, two different concept are distinguished: occupational commitment, that is, the commitment to the profession or occupation of the employee, and organizational commitment, which refers to the commitment of the employees toward the organization they are working for (Blau et al., 2008). Four research studies considered occupational commitment. Three of them found a positive relationship between occupational commitment and participation in formal work-related learning (Blau et al., 2008; Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999; Lauber et al., 2010). However, Blau et al. showed that this relationship pertained only to professional development activities and not organizational development activities. Chan and Auster (2003) found a non–statistically significant relation between occupational commitment and both formal and informal learning activities. Two of the above-mentioned studies also considered organizational commitment. Blau et al. related this organizational commitment positively to formal organizational development activities. In contrast, Lauber et al. (2010) found a negative relationship. They explained this relationship through the existence of time constraints.

Pierce and Maurer (2009) took a more holistic approach on organizational commitment; they examined organizational citizenship behavior: “Individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organization” (Pierce & Maurer, 2009, p. 139). This type of behavior was positively related to work-related learning behavior involving both formal and informal activities. Zoogah (2010), on the other hand, found that when individuals recognize that they were disadvantaged by their organization and they resent this, this does not directly affect their participation in formal development activities. However, individual relative deprivation was indirectly related through the learning intention of an employee.

In this final paragraph of this section, we present a few additional research results. Both Harris (1999) and Booth (1991) found that union members participate more in learning activities. Harris added that this effect was less strong in larger organizations. Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) found no relation between formal learning and union membership. Holding a second job increases the participation of women, whereas men’s participation increases when they are looking for (additional) jobs (Harris, 1999). Related to this looking for a job, Booth found that the number of months an employee remains unemployed relates negatively to the participation in development activities. Finally, the study of Montizaan et al. (2009) found that postponing retirement for 1 year increased the participation of older employees, whereas their pension savings did not have any predictive value.

Micro level: Job characteristics

The final category at the micro level pertains to the characteristics of the job. We start with discussing the occupational type and level of the employee. The research concerning the influence of the occupational level of employees shows consistent and relatively strong findings. Employees in higher level occupations (e.g., managers and professionals) participate more in formal learning activities (Albert et al., 2010; Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999; Forrier & Sels, 2003; Green, 1993; Harris, 1999; Noe & Wilk, 1993; Oosterbeek, 1996; Sala-Velasco, 2009; Tharenou, 1997, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998; Xiao & Tsang, 2004). Noe (1996) also found that managers participate more than technical and clerical staff when considering both formal and informal learning activities. Taylor and Urwin (2001) found that managers, administrators, professionals, and associate professionals participate more in formal learning activities than do office and personal and protective service employees, whereas Booth (1991) found that manual workers participate less in comparison to nonmanual workers.

The research of Ito and Brotheridge (2005) added that participation in decision making, which is associated with higher occupational levels, contributes to participation in learning activities. Aspirations of employees to become managers were not related to the participation in formal learning activities (Tharenou, 2001). In line with the results at the occupational level, Ito and Brotheridge (2005) found that the more employees managers have under their supervision, the more they participate in formal and informal learning activities. Simmering et al. (2003) were unable to confirm this result regarding the span of control of an employee.

Finally, Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) focused on specific occupations and found that those in occupations such as sales and security participate the least in formal learning. We have already reported that employees in high-technology professions demonstrate a higher learning intention in comparison to other professions; however, it can be noticed that this is not reflected in their actual participation (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994). In line with their results regarding learning intention, Doornbos et al. (2008) found that different work domains in police services also lead to differences in the participation in informal learning activities.

Blau et al. (2008) investigated the influence of job and occupational satisfaction on the participation in formal learning activities. Job satisfaction pertains to the satisfaction employees derive from their current job and position within the organization, whereas occupational satisfaction refers to the satisfaction employees derive from performing their profession, which could also be performed within another organization. They found that job satisfaction relates to organizational development activities, whereas occupational satisfaction relates positively to professional development activities (Blau et al., 2008). Hurtz and Williams (2009) and Rowold and Shilling (2006) also presented a positive relationship between job involvement and educational participation. The more individuals consider their work to be a central life concern, the more they participate. Two other studies could not confirm this result (Maurer et al., 2003; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994).

In line with the job demands control model of Karasek (1979), a few studies (n = 4) investigated the role of job demands and job control in participation in development activities (Gijbels et al., 2010, 2012; Taris & Feij, 2004). Results show that job demands are positively related to work-related development (Gijbels et al., 2012; Loon & Casimir, 2008). Loon and Casimir (2008) showed that this relation is even stronger when individuals’ need for achievement is high. Gijbels et al. (2010) were unable to confirm this positive relationship. Regarding job control, the study of Gijbels et al. (2012) found a moderate positive relationship with work-related learning.

Taris and Feij (2004) investigated work-related learning at different levels of job demands and job control. Their results showed that the most learning occurs when both job demands and job control are high, whereas both low job demands and job control result in the least amount of learning. The study of Gijbels et al. (2010) showed a statistically nonsignificant relationship between job control and work-related learning behavior. Experiencing a high level of strain was found to have an adverse effect on learning (Taris & Feij, 2004). In addition, Tharenou (2001) focused on job challenge. Although receiving challenging assignments positively predicts the motivation of an employee to learn, it does not predict participation in formal learning activities.

The results regarding the workload of an employee appear to be inconclusive. Doornbos et al. (2008) found that work pressure was positively related to informal learning activities, whereas Lauber et al. (2010) and Murray and Lawry (2011) identified workload as a barrier for participation. Tharenou (2001) concluded that workload barriers do not predict participation in formal learning.

Besides the demand side of the job, other job characteristics were considered. Doornbos et al. (2008) did not find a statistically significant relationship with task variety and task autonomy when investigating different informal learning activities. Ito and Brotheridge (2005) also identified a statistically nonsignificant result for autonomy. In contrast, Simmering et al. (2003) did show that the autonomy a job supplies correlated positively with work-related learning. In addition, they found that especially conscientious employees participate in work-related learning when they feel that their autonomy needs are not satisfied by the autonomy in their job (Simmering et al., 2003).

The research of Cooper and Kurland (2002) concluded that professional isolation had a negative influence on informal learning activities. This result seems to indicate that interaction with others is an important element in the informal learning process of an employee (e.g., Kyndt, Dochy, & Nijs, 2009).

When investigating the differences between employees with different contracts, two differentiations come to the fore: a temporary versus tenured contract and a full-time versus part-time contract. All studies that investigated these differences focused on formal learning. Their results show that employees with a permanent contract participate more than those with a temporary contract (Albert et al., 2010; Forrier & Sels, 2003; Harris, 1999; Leuven & Oosterbeek, 1999; Oosterbeek, 1996). Full-time employees also participate more in comparison with part-time employed individuals (Albert et al., 2010; Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Leuven & Oosterbeek, 1999; Sala-Velasco, 2009; Thangavelu et al., 2011; Tharenou, 2001). In terms of working hours, research shows that working longer hours increases the likelihood of participating in formal learning activities (Harris, 1999; Oosterbeek, 1996). Booth (1991) and Green (1993) confirmed this result for female workers. In addition, Harris found that working flexible hours also increased this likelihood, whereas Warr and Birdi (1998) found that working in shifts had a negative relation with development activities. Job insecurity (Blau et al., 2008; Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999), occupational insecurity (Blau et al., 2008), and experienced job loss (Cavanaugh & Noe, 1999) were found to be unrelated to participation in work-related learning.

Although Tabassi and Bakar (2009) state that low income forms a barrier for the participation in formal learning, quantitative research does not seem to confirm this finding. Three studies found that income was not a statistically significant predictor of work-related learning (Green, 1993; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Montizaan et al., 2009). Greenhalgh and Mavrotas (1994) stated that employees with a middle income participated more than employees with low or high incomes. Thangavelu et al. (2011) concluded that well-paid employees were more likely to participate.

Finally, the tenure of an employee was examined. Although tenure and age are strongly correlated, the results concerning tenure are less clear-cut. Several studies (n = 5) did not find a statistically significant relation between tenure and work-related learning (Oosterbeek, 1996; Simmering et al., 2003; Thangavelu et al., 2011; Tharenou, 1997, 2001). In total, four studies concluded that tenure was negatively related to learning (Doornbos et al., 2008; Green, 1993; Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005). Albert et al. (2010) confirmed this finding for general training, but found the reverse for specific training. The studies of Garavan et al. (2010), Harris (1999), and Noe and Wilk (1993) showed a positive relationship between tenure and participation in formal learning activities. In general, and in line with the results on the employee’s age, the coefficients are relatively small.

Meso level: Learning activity

The meso level, or the level of the learning activity, is the level that is least investigated by the studies focusing on participation included in this review study. A couple of longitudinal studies (n = 2) investigated if prior participation predicted later participation in development activities. The results show that prior participation in formal learning is a strong predictor of later participation in formal learning (Hurtz & Williams, 2009; Maurer et al., 2003). The reactions and experiences to this prior participation were also investigated. Positive reactions related to more participation in learning activities (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Noe and Wilk (1993) did not confirm this relationship. In addition, previous transfer success after a formal training was also a positive predictor of participation in formal learning activities. It looks like participation seems to be part of a vicious or virtuous circle (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994). The research on informal learning is limited, but prior participation in informal learning does not seem to predict later learning success in informal learning (Schulz & Roβnagel, 2010). However, when employees value informal work-related learning, they participate more in the informal learning activity “learning together.”

Only a few studies (n = 3) focused on the influence on participation of characteristics of the actual learning activity itself. Garavan et al. (2010) investigated the role of the content quality and the learner support, feedback, and recognition that was offered. Their results show that content quality and learner support, feedback, and recognition positively predicted participation in formal work-related e-learning. Leisink and Greenwood (2007) added that it is important that the training is adapted to adult learners in a way that it is relevant for practice (rather than theoretical). They stated that training is not attractive if employees cannot use it. This relevancy for practice was also identified by Murray and Lawry (2011).

The majority of the studies within this level (6 out of 11) focused on the expected benefits and outcomes of participating in learning activities. In general, it can be concluded that expected benefits yielded a positive relationship with participation (Noe & Wilk, 1993; Pierce & Maurer, 2009). Maurer et al. (2003) found that intrinsic benefits had a positive relationship with participation in formal and informal learning activities, whereas extrinsic benefits showed a negative relationship. Mallon and Walton (2005) identified that employees participate because they want to gain skills that will enable them to progress in their career and because it results in a formal qualification and possible career advancement. However, Garavan et al. (2010) showed that participation was negatively related to the likelihood of future increased responsibility. Murray and Lawry (2011) found that participation leads to personal satisfaction and confidence.

Macro level: Organization

At the macro level, two different categories are distinguished. The first category pertains to the characteristics of the organization. The results concerning the relationship between the firm size and work-related learning are consistent. Except for the study of Tharenou (1997), all studies showed that firm size is positively related to participation in formal learning activities (Albert et al., 2010; Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Harris, 1999; Montizaan et al., 2009; Oosterbeek, 1996; Sala-Velasco, 2009; Taylor & Urwin, 2001; Tharenou, 2001; Xiao & Tsang, 2004). Booth (1991) confirmed this result for work-related learning including formal and informal learning activities. Green (1993) found this result only for on-the-job learning activities. As mentioned, Harris found that the effect of being a union member was stronger in larger firms. In line with this result, Booth found a positive effect of union coverage within an organization, whereas Leisink and Greenwood (2007) argued that union activities can play an important role in training arrangements for low-skilled employees.

Several research studies (n = 7) investigated if differences existed between organizations in different sectors. Three studies showed that employees in the public sector participate more in formal development activities than do employees in the private sector (Booth, 1991; Harris, 1999; Sala-Velasco, 2009). Birdi et al. (2007) found that employees in the nonprofit sector also participate more in comparison to those in the profit sector. Finally, three studies did not find differences (Green, 1993; Tharenou, 1997, 2001). In addition, other studies (n = 5) focused on differences between different industries. On one hand, several industries were identified in which educational participation was low: agriculture (Oosterbeek, 1996), manufacturing (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994; Taylor & Urwin, 2001), education (Sala-Velasco, 2009), construction (Oosterbeek, 1996; Taylor & Urwin, 2001), hospitality (Taylor & Urwin, 2001), retail and wholesale (Taylor & Urwin, 2001), and trade (Oosterbeek, 1996).

On the other hand, the medical industry (Oosterbeek, 1996), legal companies (Sala-Velasco, 2009), and nontrade (Greenhalgh & Mavrotas, 1994) and tertiary industries (Xiao & Tsang, 2004) were identified as industries with a high level of educational participation. Rowold and Shilling’s (2006) study investigated the differences between different departments within the same organization. Their results showed that outbound departments (e.g., sales) participated more in career-related continuous learning than did inbound departments (e.g., administration).

An organizational variable that has been investigated by a quite a lot of researchers is organizational support (n = 19). Tharenou (2001) stated that this support was one of the most important predictors of work-related learning. The majority of the studies (n = 14) found that organizational support related positively to participation in development activities (Hurtz & Williams, 2009; Leisink & Greenwood, 2007; Maurer et al., 2003). A similar relation was found for social support (Garavan et al., 2010; Maurer et al., 2002; Noe & Wilk, 1993) and supervisor support (Chan & Auster, 2003; Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Leisink & Greenwood, 2007; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994; Murray & Lawry, 2011; Noe, 1996; Tharenou, 2001; Warr & Birdi, 1998). Warr and Birdi (1998) also confirmed this positive relationship for support from colleagues; however, Maurer and Tarulli (1994) found a negative relationship regarding this support, whereas social integration with colleagues was statistically nonsignificant (Doornbos et al., 2008). Murray and Lawry (2011) concluded that it was important to have people around. In addition, Pierce and Maurer (2009) also found a negative relationship between organizational support and involvement in work-related learning. Three studies did not find a statistically significant relationship between work-related learning and support (Doornbos et al., 2008; Gijbels et al., 2010; Gijbels et al., 2012). Career encouragement by supervisors and colleagues did result in more participation in formal learning activities (Tharenou, 1997).

Several research studies (n = 5) incorporated organizational support within the broader concept of learning climate or culture. A positive learning climate or culture refers to an organizational climate that values, supports, and appreciates work-related learning. These aspects of an environment were found to relate positively to participation in learning activities (Tharenou, 1997). Brown and McCracken (2009) showed that an unsupportive organizational climate is an important barrier for the participation in formal learning activities. Tabassi and Bakar (2009) stated that a low culture was also experienced as an important barrier. Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) found that a positive training climate related positively to learning success in informal learning. In contrast, Chan and Auster (2003) found that a climate in which it is perceived that information is exchanged with peers and supervisors related negatively to informal learning. However, the authors argued that this unexpected result can probably be explained by the difficulty of measuring informal learning and the fact that not all informal learning is recognized as learning. Within informal learning, feedback plays an important role. Brown and McCracken (2009) defined staff issues as the unwillingness of employees to be receptive to feedback and found that this was an important barrier for work-related learning.

Furthermore, Maurer et al. (2002) did not find a statistically significant relationship between participation in formal learning activities and the degree to which an organization emphasizes investment in learning and development. Maurer and Tarulli (1994), investigating the company orientation toward learning—that is, the degree to which learning is valued and emphasized—also found a statistically nonsignificant relationship. In contrast, a company policy that facilitates participation in learning and development activities was found to be a positive predictor. In addition, a staffing strategy that focuses on recruiting employees from within the organization rather than from the outside and therefore focuses on the internal development of expertise positively predicts participation in work-related learning (Bates, 2001).

Xiao and Tsang (2004) investigated the direction of internal mobility and found that both employees who experienced upward mobility and those who experienced downward mobility participated more in work-related learning than the stable reference group. They stated, “Those with upward mobility have acquired the skills to stay competent on the job; whereas those downward mobility are aware of the necessity to acquire job competence” (Xiao & Tsang, 2004, p. 410). Related to this internal mobility, Zoogah (2010) found that procedural justice—procedures in terms of offering training and promotions within organizations—did not significantly predict participation in development activities.

Different organizations can offer different opportunities for learning to their employees. Research that investigated the role of the perceived opportunities for actual participation in learning activities showed that the availability of learning opportunities is a strong positive predictor of actual participation (Hurtz & Williams, 2009). Maurer et al. (2002) added that the availability of development resources (learning materials and time) related positively to on-the-job learning. Schulz and Roβnagel (2010) found a similar result for informal learning; learning opportunities at work correlated positively with informal learning success. Doornbos et al. (2008) specified that the possibility for collegial feedback was an important variable for participation in various types of informal learning activities. Two studies investigating the role of 360-degree feedback were not able to confirm this result for formal and informal development activities (Maurer et al., 2002; Simmering et al., 2003). Both studies found statistically significant relationships only between development and self-rating or self-feedback; however, Maurer et al. (2002) found a positive relationship, whereas Simmering et al. (2003) found a negative relationship.

Pertaining to the opportunities an employer offers and the willingness of employees to participate, it can be stated that it is remarkable that Noe and Wilk (1993) did not find a statistically significant relationship between a match in employee and firm development needs and participation in work-related learning.

The final organizational characteristic we present is the influence of organizational change. Xiao and Tsang (2004) found that employees who indicated that they were unsure of whether or not they had experienced technological and organizational changes within their organization were less likely to participate than those who did experience these changes. Cavanaugh and Noe (1999) focused on voluntary job change and organizational change in terms of downsizing, restructuring, and mergers. Their results showed that these changes were unrelated to the participation in development activities. Finally, Zoogah (2010) found that when employees were in agreement with the policy change, they participated more in formal learning activities.

Macro Level: Broader context

The broader context is the category that contains the least investigated variables. The first variable in this category pertains to support coming from people outside the workplace. Maurer et al. (2003) and Warr and Birdi (1998) investigated this nonwork support—the support received from friends and family—and found that it was positively associated with participation in formal and informal development activities.

Furthermore, the role of the government was explored. Leisink and Greenwood (2007) showed that the institutional frameworks of countries play a role when it comes to participation in training of low-skilled employees. Tabassi and Bakar (2009) identified an inadequate obligation from the government to participate in formal learning activities and low control by the government of the use of unskilled workers as barriers for participation in formal training. Montizaan et al. (2009) focused on the effects of reform of the pension system, which led to an exogenous change in benefits, on the participation in development activities of older employees. Their research showed that this exogenous change in pension rights affected investments in human capital: Older employees participated more in development activities.