Shocking the System? The COVID Crisis and Virtual Schooling in Oregon

Abstract

Although the COVID pandemic dramatically expanded K–12 remote learning in its first years, little is known about the lasting effects on virtual schooling policies and practices. Drawing on evolutionary theories of change and qualitative data from 2019 to 2022, we explore this topic in Oregon, a state with a long history of virtual schools. We find that the pandemic contributed to limited change in state virtual schooling policy and some shifts in local organizational practices. Our data also raise questions about the durability of any changes and the implications for marginalized students. Ultimately, this study provides much-needed insights on the impact of the pandemic on policy and practice, and the utility of multi-disciplinary, equity-oriented theory to understand change processes in K–12 education.

Keywords

educational policy equity organization theory/change policy politics

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ahn

(2011). Policy, technology, and practice in cyber charter schools: Framing the issues. Teachers College Record, 113(1), 1–26.

Ahn

McEachin

(2017). Student enrollment patterns and achievement in Ohio’s online charter schools. Educational Researcher, 46(1), 44–57.

Aldrich

(1999). Organizations evolving. Sage.

Allbright

Marsh

Hall Tobben

L. M.

Picus

Lavadenz

(2019). Conceptualizing equity in the implementation of California education finance reform. American Journal of Education, 125(2), 173–200.

Apple

M. W.

(2012). Can education change society? Routledge.

Argyris

Schon

D. A.

(1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Addison-Wesley.

Bacher-Hicks

Goodman

Green

J. G.

Holt

M. K.

(2022). The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted both school bullying and cyberbullying. American Economic Review: Insights, 4(3), 353–370.

Barbour

M. K.

Miron

Huerta

(2017). Virtual schools in the U.S.: Case studies of policy, performance, and research evidence. Michigan Virtual University. http://media.mivu.org/institute/pdf/VSCase-17.pdf

Barbour

M. K.

Reeves

T. C.

(2009). The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, 52(2), 402–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.09.009

10.

Baumgartner

Jones

(1993). Agendas and instability in American politics. Chicago University Press.

11.

Baumgartner

F. R.

Jones

B. D.

Mortensen

P. B.

(2018). Punctuated equilibrium theory: Explaining stability and change in public policymaking. In Weible

C. M.

Sabatier

P. A.

(Eds.), Theories of the policy process (pp. 55–101). Routledge.

12.

Baumhardt

(2021, December 1). Despite closing decades-long funding gaps, Oregon schools say they need more money. Oregon Capital Chronicle. https://oregoncapitalchronicle.com/2021/12/01/despite-closing-decades-long-funding-gaps-oregon-schools-say-they-need-more-money/

13.

Beck

Egalite

Maranto

(2014). Why they choose and how it goes: Comparing special education and general education cyber student perceptions. Computers & Education, 76, 70–79.

14.

Bell

D. A

Jr . (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard Law Review, 93(3), 518–533.

15.

Belsha

Barnum

(2022). Sticking around: Most big districts will offer virtual learning this fall, a sign of pandemic’s effect. Chalkbeat. https://www.chalkbeat.org/2022/6/6/23153483/big-school-districts-virtual-learning-fall-2022

16.

Black

Ferdig

Thompson

L. A.

(2021). K–12 virtual schooling, COVID-19, and student success. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(2), 119–120.

17.

Blume

(2016, July 10). State settles with online charter accused of financial violations. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/local/education/la-me-edu-state-settles-with-cava-online-charter–20160708-snap-story.html

18.

Brown

(2015, June 19). Teachers allege problems at California virtual schools run by Va.-based company K12 Inc. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/teachers-allege-problems-at-california-virtual-schools-run-by-va-based-company-k12-inc/2015/06/19/dd3b4ab0-1699-11e5-89f3-61410da94eb1_story.html

19.

Bueno

(2020). Bricks and mortar vs. computers and modems: The impacts of enrollment in K–12 virtual schools (EdWorking Paper No. 20-250). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/kahb-5v62

20.

Bulkley

Fernandez

K. M.

Gerry

(2023). Charter authorizing, applications, and the needs of historically marginalized students: A cross state analysis. Educational Policy, 38, 287–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904823115

21.

Bulkley

Marsh

Mulfinger

(2021). States choice policy and levers affecting equity: Surveying the landscape (Technical report). National Center for Research on Education Access and Choice and USC Rossier Center on Education Policy, Equity and Governance. https://reachcentered.org/uploads/technicalreport/REACH-Year-1-Qual-Tech-Report.pdf

22.

Burch

(2017). Equal scrutiny: The promise of digital education in disadvantaged communities and how markets corrupt this potential. In Ndimand

Lubienski

(Eds.), Privatization and the education of marginalized children (pp. 120–139). Routledge.

23.

Burch

(2021). Hidden markets: Public policy and the push to privatize education. Routledge.

24.

Burch

Good

A. G.

(2014). Equal scrutiny: Privatization and accountability in digital education. Harvard Education Press.

25.

Burris

Cimarusti

(2021). Chartered for profit: The hidden world of charter schools operated for financial gain. Network for Public Education.

26.

Camp

Johnson

Zamarro

(2023). Revisiting ethnic differences in in-person learning during the 2021-22 school year. Journal of School Choice, 18(1), 77–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2023.2259630

27.

Camp

A. M.

Zamarro

(2022). Determinants of ethnic differences in school modality choices during the COVID-19 crisis. Educational Researcher, 51(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211057562

28.

Chubb

Moe

(1990). Politics, markets and America’s schools. Brookings Institution.

29.

Clifford

S. E.

(2018). The implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in a virtual public charter school (Doctoral dissertation). https://scholarworks.uno.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3610&context=td

30.

CREDO (Center for Research on Educational Outcomes). (2019). Charter school performance in Pennsylvania 2019. Stanford University.

31.

Cotto

Jr Woulfin

. (2021). Choice with (out) equity? Family decisions of child return to urban schools in pandemic. Journal of Family Diversity in Education, 4(1), 42–63.

32.

Creswell

J. W.

(2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.

33.

Daramola

E. J.

(2022). Fever dreams: The promise and limitations of Black and Latinx parent organizing during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Southern California.

34.

Davis

L. S.

(2020, June 15). With online learning, class bullies fade to the background. CNN. Retrieved November 20, 2022, from https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/15/health/online-class-bullies-fade-wellness/index.html

35.

DeAngelis

C. A.

Erickson

H. H.

(2018). What leads to successful school choice programs? A review of the theories and evidence. Cato Journal, 38(1), 247–263.

36.

DeLaina

Kimmons

Mason

S. L.

(2021). Motivations among special education students and their parents for switching to an online school: Survey responses and emergent themes. Online Learning, 25(2), 171–189.

37.

Diem

Young

M. D.

Sampson

(2019). Where critical policy meets the politics of education: An introduction. Educational Policy, 33(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904818807317

38.

Diliberti

M. K.

Schwartz

H. L.

(2021). The rise of virtual schools: Selected findings from the third American school district panel survey. RAND Corporation.

39.

DiMaggio

P. J.

Powell

W. W.

(1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101

40.

Dixson

A. D.

Rousseau

C. K.

(2005). And we still are not saved: Critical race theory in education ten years later. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 7–27.

41.

Dowd

A. C.

Bensimon

E. M.

(2015). Engaging the “race question”: Accountability and equity in US higher education (Multicultural Education Series). Teachers College Press.

42.

D’Souza

(2022, January 18). Stressed-out parents divided over going back to school amid surge. EdSource. https://edsource.org/2022/stressed-out-parents-divided-over-going-back-to-school-amid-surge/666205

43.

Dumas

M. J.

Anyon

(2006). Toward a critical approach to education policy implementation. In Honing

(Ed.), New directions in education policy implementation: Confronting complexity (pp. 149–186). State University of New York Press.

44.

Erickson

Scriber

(2023). Virtual charter schools and student post-secondary enrollment. Journal of School Choice, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2023.2289094

45.

Erwin

(2021). A policymaker’s guide to virtual schools (Policy Guide). Education Commission of the States.

46.

Fahle

E. M.

Kane

T. J.

Patterson

Reardon

S. F.

Staiger

D. O.

Stuart

E. A.

(2023). School district and community factors associated with learning loss during the COVID-19 pandemic. Center for Education Policy Research at Harvard University.

47.

Farris

E. M.

Mohamed

H. S.

(2022). Race and the rush to reopen schools during COVID-19. Journal of Public Management & Social Policy, 29(1), 7.

48.

Fitzpatrick

Berends

Ferrare

J. J.

Waddington

R. J.

(2020). Virtual charter schools and online learning during COVID-19. The Brookings Institute.

49.

Flink

C. M.

(2017). Rethinking punctuated equilibrium theory: A public administration approach to budgetary changes. Policy Studies Journal, 45(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12114

50.

Gersick

C. J. G.

(1991). Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), 10–36. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1991.4278988

51.

Glass

G. V.

(2009). The realities of K–12 virtual education. National Education Policy Center.

52.

Glass

G. V.

Welner

K. G.

(2011). Online K–12 schooling in the US: Uncertain private ventures in need of public regulation. National Education Policy Center.

53.

Gold

B. A.

(1999). Punctuated legitimacy: A theory of educational change. Teachers College Record, 101(2), 192–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/0161-4681.00038

54.

Graf

(2023). Most families have given up virtual school, but what about students who are still thriving online?. The Hechinger Report. https://hechingerreport.org/most-families-have-given-up-virtual-school-but-what-about-students-who-are-still-thriving-online/

55.

Gross

(2021). Surging enrollment in virtual schools during the pandemic spurs new questions for policymakers. The Center on Reinventing Public Education. https://crpe.org/surging-enrollment-in-virtual-schools-during-the-pandemic-spurs-new-questions-for-policymakers/

56.

Haderlein

Marsh

Tong

Bulkley

Jabbar

Germain

Quinn

Bradley

Alonso

Mulfinger

(2021). Schools and school choice during a year of disruption: Views of parents in five states. National Center for Research on Education Access and Choice. https://reachcentered.org/uploads/technicalreport/20211004-Haderlein-et-al-REACH-COVID-Parent-Survey-Appendix_211005_145617_2022-02-04-211028_ityq.pdf

57.

Harris

D. N.

(2020). Charter school city: What the end of traditional public schools in New Orleans means for American education. University of Chicago Press.

58.

Hasler-Waters

Barbour

M.-K.

Menchaca

M.-P.

(2014). The nature of online charter schools: Evolution and emerging concerns. Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 379–389.

59.

Hawkins

(2020, February 5). Threatened with closure, virtual school embraced accountability, fired its for-profit manager and made dramatic gains for its 9,000 students. The 74. https://www.the74million.org/article/threatened-with-closure-virtual-school-embraced-accountability-fired-its-for-profit-manager-and-made-dramatic-gains-for-its-9000-students/

60.

Herold

(2016, November 3). Connections education: A defense of cyber charters. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/school-choice-charters/rewarding-failure-an-education-week-investigation-of-the-cyber-charter-industry/2016/11/00000175-4786-d8cd-a7ff-7faed4ab0002

61.

Herold

(2021, May 6). Full-time virtual schools: Still growing, still struggling, still resisting oversight. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/full-time-virtual-schools-still-growing-still-struggling-still-resisting-oversight/2021/05

62.

Hofmann

Arenge

Dickens

Marfan

Ryan

Tiong

N. D.

Radia

Janik Blaskova

(2021). The COVID-19 learning crisis as a challenge and an opportunity for schools: An evidence review and conceptual synthesis of research-based tools for sustainable change. CEPS Journal, 11(Special Issue), 39–66.

63.

Holyoke

T. T.

Henig

J. R.

Brown

Lacireno-Paquet

(2009). Policy dynamics and the evolution of state charter school laws. Policy Sciences, 42(1), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-009-9077-3

64.

Horn

(2021). Districts should be able to offer virtual schools in fall. The Future of Education. https://michaelbhorn.substack.com/p/districts-should-offer-virtual-schools

65.

Horsford

S. D.

Scott

J. T.

Anderson

G. L.

(2018). The politics of education policy in an era of inequality: Possibilities for democratic schooling. Routledge.

66.

Howell

Peterson

(2002). Impact of school voucher research. Political Science & Politics, 35(4), 659–660. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096502001063

67.

Howlett

Migone

(2011). Charles Lindblom is alive and well and living in punctuated equilibrium land. Policy and Society, 30(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polsoc.2010.12.006

68.

Hunt

(2000). Senate bill 100: Creating public school choice through charter schools. Willamette Law Review, 36(2), 265–311.

69.

Jones

B. D.

Baumgartner

F. R.

(2012). From there to here: Punctuated equilibrium to the general punctuation thesis to a theory of government information processing. Policy Studies Journal, 40(1), 1–20.

70.

Kaufman

J. H.

Diliberti

M. K.

(2021). Divergent and inequitable teaching and learning pathways during (and per-haps beyond) the pandemic: Key findings from the American educator panels spring 2021 COVID-19 surveys. RAND Corporation.

71.

Keaton

(2021, April 30). Identifying virtual schools using the common core of data (CCD). NCES Blog. https://nces.ed.gov/blogs/nces/post/identifying-virtual-schools-using-the-common-core-of-data-ccd

72.

Kezar

(2012). Organizational change in a global, postmodern world. In Bastedo

(Ed.), The organization of higher education (pp. 181–221). Johns Hopkins University Press.

73.

Kingdon

J. W. W.

(1995). Agendas, alternatives and public policies (2nd ed.). Harper Collins.

74.

Kingsbury

(2021). Online learning: How do brick and mortar schools stack up to virtual schools?. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6567–6588.

75.

Kuhfeld

Soland

Tarasawa

Johnson

Ruzek

Liu

(2020). Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educational Researcher, 49(8), 549–565.

76.

Ladson-Billings

(2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12.

77.

Ladson-Billings

(2021). I’m here for the hard re-set: Post pandemic pedagogy to preserve our culture. Equity & Excellence in Education, 54(1), 68–78.

78.

Lake

(2021, October 25). The pandemic could have unlocked remote schooling: It hasn’t. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-the-pandemic-could-have-unlocked-remote-schooling-it-hasnt/2021/10

79.

Lehrer-Small

(2022, November 14). Virtual school enrollment kept climbing even as COVID receded, new data reveal. The 74. https://www.the74million.org/article/virtual-school-enrollment-kept-climbing-even-as-covid-receded-new-data-reveal/

80.

Levinson

Geron

Brighouse

(2022). Conceptions of educational equity. AERA Open, 8, 23328584221121344.

81.

Lincoln

Guba

(1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.

82.

Lindblom

C. E.

(1959). The science of muddling through. Public Administration Review, 19(2), 79–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/973677

83.

Macgillvray

I. K.

(2000). Educational equity for gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and queer/questioning students: The demands for democracy and social justice for America’s schools. Education and Urban Society, 32(3), 303–323.

84.

Macy

Shaw

M. E.

(2018). Bringing the ivory tower into students’ homes: Promoting accessibility in online courses. Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal, 11(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.18848/1835-9795/CGP/v11i01/13-21

85.

Malcom-Piqueux

Bensimon

E. M.

(2017). Taking equity-minded action to close equity gaps. Peer Review, 19(2), 5–9.

86.

Marsh

Allbright

Bulkley

Brown

Strunk

Harris

(2021). The process and politics of educational governance change in New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Denver. American Educational Research Journal, 58(1), 107–159.

87.

McFarland

W. P.

(1998). Gay, lesbian and bisexual student suicide. Professional School Counselling, 1, 26–31.

88.

McLendon

M. K.

Cohen-Vogel

(2008). Understanding education policy change in the American states: Lessons from political science. In Cooper

Cibulka

J. G.

Fusarelli

L. D.

(Eds.), Handbook of education politics and policy (pp. 30–51). Routledge.

89.

Meyer

A. D.

Brooks

G. R.

Goes

J. B.

(1990). Environmental jolts and industry revolutions: Organizational responses to discontinuous change. Strategic Management Journal, 11(4), 93–110.

90.

Meyer

J. W.

Rowan

(1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363. https://doi.org/10.1086/226550

91.

Miller

(2023). Behind Portland’s decision to shut down online learning academy. OPB. https://www.opb.org/article/2023/02/02/online-learning-academy-close-portland-public-schools/

92.

Mills

M. R.

(2007). Stories of politics and policy: Florida’s higher education governance reorganization. Journal of Higher Education, 78(2), 162–187. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2007.0011

93.

Milner

H. R.

IV . (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers seen, unseen, and unforeseen. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 388–400. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07309471

94.

Molnar

Garcia

D. R.

(2007). The expanding role of privatization in education: Implications for teacher education and development. Teacher Education Quarterly, 34(2), 11–24.

95.

Molnar

Miron

Elgeberi

Barbour

M. K.

Huerta

Shafer

S. R.

Rice

J. K.

(2019). Virtual schools in the U.S. 2019. National Education Policy Center.

96.

Molnar

A. (Ed.)

Miron

Barbour

M. K.

Huerta

Shafer

S. R.

Rice

J. K.

Glover

Browning

Hagle

Boninger

(2021). Virtual schools in the U.S. 2021. National Education Policy Center. http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/virtual-schools-annual-2021

97.

Molnar

A. (Ed.)

Miron

Hagle

Gulosino

Mann

Huerta

L. A.

Rice

J. K.

Glover

Bill

(2023). Virtual schools in the U.S. 2023. National Education Policy Center. http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/virtual-schools-annual-2023

98.

Murphy

(2006). The 2006 Willower family lecture: The evolving nature of the American high school: A punctuated equilibrium model of institutional change. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 5, 285–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700760600929426

99.

National Alliance for Public Charter Schools. (2021). Oregon. https://www.publiccharters.org/our-work/charter-law-database/states/oregon

100.

Nowicki

J. M.

(2022). K–12 education: Department of education should help states address student testing issues and financial risks associated with virtual schools, particularly virtual charter schools (Report to Congressional Requesters GAO-22-104444). US Government Accountability Office.

101.

Oregon Department of Education (ODE). (2021). School and district profile reports. https://www.oregon.gov/ode/schools-and-districts/reportcards/Pages/default.aspx

102.

Oregon Department of Education (ODE). (2022a). Data snapshot part I: Virtual learning in Oregon. https://www.oregon.gov/ode/learning-options/Documents/Virtual_Learning_in_Oregon_Data_Snapshot.pdf

103.

Oregon Department of Education (ODE). (2022b). Online & remote learning guidance critical requirements and design indicators school year 2022–23. https://www.oregon.gov/ode/schools-and-districts/grants/Documents/Online%20and%20Remote%20Learning%20Guidance%202022-2023%20SY%209.9.pdf

104.

Oregon Department of Education. (2023). 2022–23 Virtual public charter schools (list). https://www.oregon.gov/ode/learning-options/schooltypes/charter/Documents/2022-23%20Oregon%20Virtual%20Public%20Charter%20Schools.xlsx

105.

Oregon Department of Education. (2022c). Online and remote learning guidance. https://www.oregon.gov/ode/learning-options/pages/remote-learning.aspx

106.

Oregon Public Broadcasting. (2023, January). Anonymized article.

107.

Oregon Secretary of State. (2017). Stronger accountability, oversight, and support would improve results for academically at-risk students in alternative and online education (SOS Audit Report No. 2017-30). https://sos.oregon.gov/audits/documents/2017-30.pdf

108.

Oregon Secretary of State. (2019). Recommendation follow-up report: Stronger accountability, oversight, and support would improve results for academically at-risk students in alternative and online education (SOS Audit Report No. 2019-12). https://sos.oregon.gov/audits/Documents/2019-12.pdf

109.

Oregon Secretary of State. (2022). State leaders and policymakers must address persistent system risks to improve K–12 equity and student success (SOS Audit Report No. 2022-16). https://sos.oregon.gov/audits/Documents/2022-16.pdf

110.

Pangelinan

Dusseault

(2022, August 28). Many remote learning options shutting down as school reopens for fall 2022. The 74. https://www.the74million.org/article/many-remote-learning-options-shutting-down-as-school-reopens-for-fall-2022/

111.

Park

A. Y.

Sapotichne

(2020). Punctuated equilibrium and bureaucratic autonomy in American City Governments. Policy Studies Journal, 48(4), 896–925.

112.

Parsons

Fidler

(2005). A new theory of educational change–punctuated equilibrium: The case of the internationalisation of higher education institutions. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(4), 447–465. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2005.00306.x

113.

Pendharkar

(2022, October 26). Some breaks from bullying, but fewer supports: How LGBTQ students fared in the pandemic. Education Week. Retrieved November 20, 2022, from https://www.edweek.org/leadership/some-breaks-from-bullying-but-fewer-supports-how-lgbtq-students-fared-in-the-pandemic/2022/10

114.

Public Charter Schools. (2021). Oregon Revised Statutes, Chapter 338. https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/ors/ors338.html

115.

Rauh

(2011). Online education as a toll good: An examination of the South Carolina virtual school program. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1583–1594.

116.

Relyea

J. E.

Rich

Kim

J. S.

Gilbert

J. B.

(2022). The COVID-19 impact on reading achievement growth of grade 3-5 students in a U.S. urban school district: Variation across student characteristics and instructional modalities (EdWorkingPaper 22-646). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/r7nt-z076

117.

Roblyer

M. D.

(2008). Virtual schools: Redefining “a place called school”. In Voogt

Knezek

(Eds.), International handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education. Springer. https://doi-org.libproxy1.usc.edu/10.1007/978-0-387-73315-9_40

118.

Saavedra

Rapaport

Silver

(2020). Matching supports to student needs: Survey results highlight where schools, policymakers can help. Center on Reinventing Public Education. https://crpe.org/wp-content/uploads/Matching-supports-to-student-needs-EP.pdf

119.

Saavedra

Rapaport

Silver

(2021, June 8). Why some parents are sticking with remote learning—Even as schools reopen. Brookings Brown Center Chalkboard. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2021/06/08/why-some-parents-are-sticking-with-remote-learning-even-as-schools-reopen/

120.

Saldaña

(2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). Sage.

121.

Silverman

(2023, February 3). Portland schools to axe online academy amid budget cuts. Government Technology. https://www.govtech.com/education/K–12/portland-schools-to-axe-online-academy-amid-budget-cuts

122.

Singer

Marsh

Menefee-Libey

Alonso

Bradley

Tracy

(2023). The politics of school reopening during COVID-19: A multiple case study of five urban districts in the 2020-21 School Year. Educational Administration Quarterly, 59(3), 542–593.

123.

St. George

Strauss

Meckler

Heim

Natanson

. (2021, March 15). How the pandemic is reshaping education. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/03/15/pandemic-school-year-changes/

124.

Toomey

R. B.

Ryan

Diaz

R. M.

Card

N. A.

Russell

S. T.

(2010). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1580–1589.

125.

Toppin

I. N.

Toppin

S. M.

(2016). Virtual schools: The changing landscape of K–12 education in the U.S. Education and Information Technologies, 21(6), 1571–1581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-015-9402-8

126.

Tushman

M. L.

Romanelli

(1985). Organizational evolution: A metamorphosis model of convergence and reorientation. Research in Organizational Behavior, 7, 171–222.

127.

U.S. Department of Education, & Office for Civil Rights. (2021). Education in a pandemic: The disparate impacts of COVID-19 on America’s students. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/20210608-impacts-of-covid19.pdf

128.

Van de Ven

A. H.

Poole

M. S.

(1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 510–540.

129.

Waxman

O. B.

(2023, August 22). Why New York City is making virtual school permanent. Time. https://time.com/6305516/new-york-city-virtual-school-permanent/

130.

Woodworth

J. L.

Raymond

M. E.

Chirbas

Gonzalez

Negassi

Snow

Van Donge

(2015). Online charter school study 2015. Center for Research on Educational Outcomes.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.08 MB