The paper situates the notion of empathy broadly within the historical context of its origins and subsequent conceptual development, particularly in psychotherapy. It shows how the term is related to its wider usage in popular culture and in studies outside of psychoanalytic psychotherapy. The paper surveys the contributions of several psychoanalytic writers, from Freud to Kohut. This is followed by a critique of more recent psychoanalytic inquiries into empathy. The discussion explores reasons for some of the difficulties resting with a psychoanalytic approach. It is suggested that these are due in large measure to inherent difficulties in defining the term, but that they are accentuated by the language and polemics of psychoanalysis. More specific contributions are considered with a view to understanding the notions of aetiology, description, function and epistemology in regard to empathy within the psychoanalytic framework.
References
1.
HunsdahlJB. Concerning Einfühlung (empathy): a conceptual analysis of its origins and early development. Journal of The History of The Behavioural Sciences1967; 3: 180–191.
2.
Aristotle. Rhetorica: rhetoric. In: The works of Aristotle, vol XI (RhysRobert, trans). Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1924. (The “art” of rhetoric. Loebb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1975.).
3.
NorthrupGH. Psychoanalytic issues in the theory of empathy. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1986. (Microfiche).
4.
BerlinI. Vico and Herder: two studies in the history of ideas. New York: Viking, 1976.
5.
HumeD. Enquiries concerning human understanding and concerning the principles of morals (1748). (Revised edition) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975: 189. (Cf: Hume D. A treatise of human nature (1741: 2.1.9–11) (Revised edition). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.).
6.
ChismarD. Empathy and sympathy: the important difference. Journal of Value Enquiry1988; 22: 257–266.
7.
LippsT. Aesthetik. Hamburg: Voss, 1903. (Lipps T. Empathy and aesthetic pleasure. (Karl Aschenbrenner, trans. 1903.) In: Aesthetic theories: studies in the philosophy of art. Karl Aschenbrenner, Arnold Isenberg, eds. Englewood Cliff, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965: 403–412.
8.
SpiegelbergH. Phenomenology in psychology and psychiatry. A historical introduction. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1972.
9.
MarguliesAHavensLL. The initial encounter: what to do first?American Journal of Psychiatry1981; 138: 4: 421–428.
10.
LichtenbergJBornsteinMSilverD, eds. Empathy I and II (two volumes). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Analytic Press, 1984.
11.
GoldsteinAPMichaelsYG. Empathy, development, training and consequences. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1985.
12.
BrothersL. A biological perspective on empathy. American Journal of Psychiatry1989; 146: 1: 10–17.
13.
SharmaRM. Empathy revisited: a historical conceptual analysis. MPM Dissertation (Monash University), 1990. (in press.).
14.
ShapiroT. Empathy: a critical re-evaluation. In: LichtenbergJ, eds. Empathy I, 1985:103–128.
15.
FreudS. Group psychology and the analysis of the ego (1922). In: Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (StracheyJ., ed & trans.) (Standard edition). London: Hogarth Press. 1955; 18: 69–144.
16.
FreudS. Jokes and their relation to the unconscious (1905) (Standard edition). London: Hogarth Press, 1960:8.
17.
GayP. Freud: a life for our time. London/New York: Norton, 1988.
18.
RoazenP. Freud and his followers. New York: New York University Press, 1984.
19.
AgostaL. Empathy and intersubjectivity. In: LichtenbergJ, eds. Empathy I, 1985: 43–62.
20.
MarguliesA. Towards empathy: the uses of wonder. American Journal of Psychiatry1984; 141: 9: 1025–1033.
21.
ReikT. Listening with the third ear. New York: Farrar Strauss, 1937.
22.
FliessR. The metapsychology of the analyst. Psychoanalytic Quarterly1942; 11: 211–227.
23.
FliessR. Countertransference and counteridentification. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association1953; 1: 268–284.
24.
FerencziSRankO. The developmental aims of psychoanalysis. USA: Nervous and Mental Disease Publications, 1925.
25.
FerenzciS. The elasticity of psychoanalytic technique (1928). In: BalintM. ed. Final contributions to the problems and method of psychoanalysis, New York: Basic Books, 1955:3.
26.
FerencziS. The principle of relaxation and neo-catharsis (1930). In: BalintM. ed. Final contributions to the problems and method of psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 1955:3.
27.
BalintM ed. Final contributions to the problems and method of psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 1955.
28.
FerencziS. Introjection and transference (1909). In: JonesE., ed & trans. First contributions to psychoanalysis. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1980.
29.
FerencziS. On the definition of introjection. In BalintM. ed. Final contributions to the problems and methods of psychoanalysis. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1912 (Reprint Basic Books, 1955).
30.
MullahyP. The beginnings of modern American psychiatry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973.
31.
SullivanHS. Personal psychopathology. William Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation, Wash. DC. (Unpublished ms), 1965 (Quoted in P. Mullahy, 1973. qv).
32.
SullivanHS. Socio-psychiatric research. American Journal of Psychiatry1931; 10: 977–991.
33.
SullivanHS. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. (PerryHS.Gawel, eds). New York: Norton, 1953.
34.
BrombergPM. Empathy, anxiety and reality: A view from the bridge. Contemporary Psychoanalysis1980; 16: 2: 223–236.
35.
KohutH. Introspection, empathy, and psychoanlysis: an examination of the relationship between mode of observation and theory. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association1959; 7: 459–483.
36.
WallersteinRS. Self psychology and classical psychoanalytic psychology: the nature of their relationship. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought1983; 6: 4.
37.
KohutH. Introspection, Empathy and the semicircle of mental health. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis1982; 63: 395–408.
38.
SchaferR. Generative empathy in the treatment situation. Psychoanalytic Quarterly1959; 28: 342–373.
39.
GreensonR. Empathy and its vicissitudes. International Journal of Psychoanalysis1960; XLI: 418–428.
40.
OldenC. On adult empathy with children. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child1953; 8: 11–126.
41.
BeresD. The role of empathy in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis. Journal of The Hillside Hospital1968; 17: 362–369.
42.
BeresDArlowJA. Fantasy and identification in empathy. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 43: 26–50.
43.
BaschMF. Empathic understanding: a review of the concept and some theoretical considerations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association1983; 31: 101–126.
44.
KuhnTS. The structure of scientific revolution (revised edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.
45.
GrünbaumA. The foundations of psychoanalysis: a philosophical critique. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
46.
ShapiroT. The development and distortions of empathy. Psychoanalytic Quarterly1974; 43: 4–25.
47.
GailReed S. The antithetical meaning of the term “empathy” in psychoanalytic discourse. In: LichtenbergJ, eds. Empathy I. 1985: 7–24.
48.
SchwaberE. Disscussion. In: LichtenbergJ, eds. Empathy I, 1985: 25–30.
49.
SchaferR. Discussion. In: LichtenbergJ, eds. Empathy I, 1985: 31–36.
50.
SpenceJHJr. Discussion. In: LichtenbergJEmpathy I. 1985:37–42.
51.
MearesR. Keats and the “impersonal” therapist: a note on empathy and the therapeutic screen. Psychiatry1983; 46: 73–82.
52.
BionWR. Learning from experience. London: Maresfield Reprints, 1962.
