Abstract
Many reactions that occur on solid surfaces are mediated by free radicals. A review is presented of both mechanistic and practical investigations in relation to catalysis and environmental applications. The review begins with actual imaging of surface adsorbed reactive radicals using scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), and then discusses a range of examples, mainly as underpinned by electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements. Included are surface defects and their reactions, studies of the redox behaviour of zeolites, and the use of radicals adsorbed in zeolites as molecular surface probes of diffusion and reactivity within these important materials. Photocatalysis, mainly using TiO2-based materials, is reviewed both from the fundamental perspective and in terms of some practical examples relating to pollution control. Other reactive oxide surfaces are considered, including silica, and the nature of paramagnetic centres that may be induced thereon by a variety of activation procedures. Evidence is presented for the formation of radical species during heterogeneous reactions on metal surfaces. Finally, the role of free radical generation in creating and modifying polymer and nanomolecular systems is discussed, and the health implications of the ability of some solids such as quartz to generate reactive oxygen radicals in contact with biological media.
Keywords
References
1.
Golding W.
, The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake , Anchor Books , New York , 1997 . ISBN: 0385152132.
2.
Raine K.
, William Blake , Thames and Hudson , London 1970 ; Reprinted 1977.
3.
4.
Eigler D. M.
, and
Schweizer E. K.
, Nature , 1990 , 344 , 524 .
5.
Mayer G.
,
Repp J.
,
Zophel S.
,
Braun K.-F.
,
Hla S.-W.
,
Folsch S.
,
Bartels L.
,
Moresco F.
, and
Rieder K.-H.
, Single Molec. , 2000 , 1 , 79 .
6.
Hla S.-W.
,
Kuhnle A.
,
Bartels L.
,
Meyer G.
, and
Rieder K.-H.
, Surf. Sci. , 2000 , 454-456 , 1079 .
7.
Hla S.-W.
,
Bartels L.
,
Meyer G.
, and
Rieder K.-H.
, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2000 , 85 , 2777 .
8.
Paine A. J.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1987 , 109 , 1496 .
9.
Ullmann F.
,
Meyer G. M.
,
Loewenthal O.
, and
Gilli O.
, Justus Leibig's Annalen der Chemie , 1904 , 331 , 38 .
10.
Xi M.
, and
Bent B. E.
, Surf. Sci. , 1992 , 278 , 19 .
11.
Xi M.
, and
Bent B. E.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1993 , 115 , 7426 .
12.
Yang M. X.
,
Xi M.
,
Yuan H.
,
Bent B. E.
,
Stevens P.
, and
White J. M.
, Surf. Sci. , 1995 , 341 , 9 .
13.
Ramsey M. G.
,
Steinmuller D.
, and
Netzer P. P.
, J. Chem. Phys. , 1990 , 92 , 6210 .
14.
Weiss P. S.
,
Kamna M. M.
,
Graham T. M.
, and
Stranick S. J.
, Langmuir , 1998 , 14 , 1284 .
15.
Weingarten H.
, J. Org. Chem. , 1964 , 29 , 3624 .
16.
Hla S.-W.
,
Meyer G.
, and
Rieder K.-H.
, CHEMPHYSCHEM , 2001 , 2 , 361 .
17.
Hla S.-W.
,
Meyer G.
, and
Rieder K.-H.
, Chem. Phys. Lett. , 2003 , 370 , 431 .
18.
Rhodes C. J.
, and
Hinds C. S.
, in Radicals on Surfaces; , 1995 , 119 . eds.
Lund A.
, and
Rhodes C. J.
Kluwer , Dordrecht .
19.
Garcia H.
, and
Roth H. D.
, Chem. Rev. , 2002 , 102 , 3947 .
20.
Lunsford J. H.
, Langmuir , 1989 , 5 , 12 .
21.
Harvey G.
,
Prins R.
,
Crockett R.
, and
Roduner E.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1996 , 92 , 2027 .
22.
Rhodes C. J.
, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 1993 , 72 , 111 .
23.
Rhodes C. J.
, and
Morris H.
, unpublished results.
24.
Clarke J. K. A.
,
Darcy R.
,
Hegarty B. F.
,
O'Donoghue E.
,
Amir-Ebrahimi V.
, and
Rooney J. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 1986 , 425 .
25.
Martir W.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1981 , 103 , 3728 .
26.
Driscoll D. J.
,
Martir W.
,
Wang Ji-X.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1985 , 107 , 58 .
27.
Driscoll D. J.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1985 , 89 , 4415 .
28.
Ito T.
,
Wang Ji-W.
,
Lin C.-H.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1985 , 107 , 5062 .
29.
Driscoll D. J.
,
Martir W.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1987 , 91 , 3585 .
30.
Campbell K. D.
, and
Lunsford J. H.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1988 , 92 , 5792 .
31.Properties and Applications of Zeolites. 1980 , ed.
Townsend R. P.
, Chemical Society , London .
32.
Wayne R. P.
, Chemistry of Atmospheres , 1985 , Clarendon Press , Oxford .
33.
Van Dingenen R.
,
Jensen N. R.
,
Hjorth J.
, and
Raes F.
, J. Atmospheric Chemistry , 1994 , 18 , 211 .
34.
Wuebbles D. J.
, J. Geophys. Res. , 1983 , 1433 .
35.
Tegen I.
, and
Fung I.
, J. Geophys. Res. , 1994 , 22897 .
36.
Turco R. P.
, Earth Under Siege , 1997 , Oxford University Press , Oxford .
37.
Finlayson-Pitts B. J.
, and
Pitts J. N.
Jr.
, Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere , 2000 , Academic Press , London .
38.
Rhodes C. J.
,
Dintinger T. C.
,
Reid I. D.
, and
Scott C. A.
, Magn. Reson. Chem. , 2000 , 38 , 281 .
39.
Baretz B. H.
, and
Turro N. J.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1983 , 105 , 1309 .
40.
Nagy J. B.
,
Bodart P.
,
Hannus I.
, and
Kiricsi I.
, Synthesis, Characterisation and Use of Zeolitic Porous Materials , 1998 , DecaGen Ltd. , Szeged, Hungary .
41.
Notari B.
, Adv. Catal. , 1996 , 41 , 253 .
42.
Symons M. C. R.
, Chemical and Biochemical Aspects of Electron-Spin Resonance Spectroscopy , 1978 , van Nostrand Reinhold , New York .
43.
Atkins P. W.
, and
Symons M. C. R.
, The Structure of Inorganic Radicals , 1967 , Elsevier , Amsterdam .
44.Advanced EPR Applications in Biology and Biochemistry , 1989 , ed.
Hoff A. J.
, Elsevier , Amsterdam .
45.
Atherton N. M.
, Principles of Electron Spin Resonance , 1993 , Ellis Horwood PTR Prentice Hall , Chichester .
46.
Wertz J. E.
, and
Bolton J. R.
, Electron Spin Resonance , 1972 , McGraw-Hill , New York .
47.
Lunsford J. H.
, Catalysis Rev. , 1973 , 8 , 135 .
48.
Gardner C. L.
, and
Casey E. J.
, Application of EPR to the Study of Catalysis , Issued as DREO Report #687, Copyright 1974 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
49.
Lee J. D.
, Concise Inorganic Chemistry , 1994 , 4th Edition, Chapman and Hall , London .
50.
Smith D. R.
, and
Tench A. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 1968 , 1113 .
51.
Smith D. R.
, and
Tench A. J.
, Can. J. Chem. , 1969 , 47 , 1381 .
52.
Rhodes C. J.
, Prog. React. Kinet. and Mech. , 2000 , 25 , 219 .
53.
Shiotani M.
, and
Lindgren M.
, in Radicals on Surfaces. 1995 , eds.
Lund A.
, and
Rhodes C. J.
Kluwer , Dordrecht . p. 179 .
54.
Shiotani M.
,
Yuasa F.
, and
Sohma J.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1975 , 79 , 2669 .
55.
Kochi J. K.
, in Advances in Free Radical Chemistry , 1975 , Volume 5 . ed.
Williams G. H.
Elek Science , London , p. 189 .
56.
Kubota S.
,
Iwaizumi M.
, and
Isobe T.
, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 1971 , 44 , 2684 .
57.
Katsu T.
,
Yanagida M.
, and
Fujita Y.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1971 , 75 , 4064 .
58.
Fujita Y.
,
Katsu T.
,
Sato M.
, and
Takahashi K.
, J. Chem. Phys. , 1974 , 61 , 4307 .
59.
Shiotani M.
,
Nagata Y.
, and
Sohma J.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1984 , 88 , 4078 .
60.
Shiotani M.
, Magn. Reson. Rev. , 1987 , 12 , 333 .
61.
Roduner E.
, and
Dilger H.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2001 , 123 , 7717 .
62.
Rhodes C. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. , 2002 , 2 , 1379 .
63.
Gardner C. L.
, and
Casey E. J.
, Can. J. Chem. , 1968 , 46 , 207 .
64.
Shiga T.
, and
Lund A.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1973 , 77 , 453 .
65.
Schwager M.
,
Roduner E.
,
Reid I. D.
,
Percival P. W.
,
Brodovitch J.-C.
,
Wlodek S.
, and
Marzke R. F.
, Hyperfine Interactions , 1994 , 87 , 859 .
66.
Roduner E.
,
Crockett R.
, and
Wu L-M.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1993 , 89 , 2101 .
67.
Harris R. K.
, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. 1983 , Pitman , Melbourne .
68.Toxicology of the Human Environment – the critical role of free radicals. 2000 , ed.
Rhodes C. J.
Taylor and Francis , London .
69.Spin-labelling – Theory and Applications. 1989 , eds.
Berliner L. J.
, and
Reuben J.
Vol. 8 , Plenum Press , New York .
70.
Misidagh M. M.
,
Lozos G. P.
, and
Burwell R. L.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1975 , 79 , 1944 .
71.
Lozos G. P.
, and
Hoffman B. M.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1974 , 78 , 2110 .
72.
Golubev V. B.
,
Lunina E. V.
, and
Selivanovskii A. K.
, Russ. Chem. Rev. , 1981 , 50 , 421 .
73.
Lunina E. V.
,
Markaryan G. L.
,
Parengo O. O.
, and
Fionov A. V.
, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 1993 , 72 , 333 .
74.
Ottaviani M. F.
,
Garcia-Garibay M.
, and
Turro N. J.
, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 1993 , 72 , 321 .
75.
Mazzoleni F.
,
Ottaviani M. F.
,
Romanelli M.
, and
Martini G.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1988 , 92 , 1953 .
76.
Mumpton F. A.
, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 1999 , 96 , 3463 .
77.
Barrer R. M.
, Zeolites and Clay Minerals , 1978 , Academic Press , London .
78.
79.Mobil Co. , Netherland patent 7,014,807, 1971 .
80.
Meisel S. L.
,
McCullogh J. P.
,
Lechthaler C. H.
, and
Weisz P. B.
, CHEMTECH , 1976 , 6 , 86 .
81.
Chang C. D.
, Hydrocarbons from Methanol , 1983 , Marcel Dekker , New York .
82.
Karger J.
, and
Ruthven D. M.
, Diffusion in Zeolites – and Other Microporous Solids , 1992 , Wiley , New York .
83.
Mota C. J. A.
,
Bhering D. L.
, and
Rosenbach N.
Jr.
, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. , 2004 , 43 , 3050 .
84.
Symons M. C. R.
, and
Wyatt J. L.
, J. Chem. Res. (S) , 1989 , 362 .
85.
Hasegawa A.
,
Shiotani M.
, and
Williams F.
, Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc. , 1991 , 63 , 157 .
86.
Rhodes C. J.
,
Glidewell C.
, and
Agirbas H.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1991 , 87 , 3171 .
87.
Rhodes C. J.
,
Morris H.
,
Agirbas H.
,
Standing M.
, and
Zhang Y.
, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2 , 1998 , 1375 .
88.
Zholobenko V. L.
,
Kustov L. M.
, and
Kazanskii V. B.
, Kinet. Catal. , 1989 , 30 , 792 .
89.
Kucherov A. V.
,
Slinkin A. A.
,
Kharson M.
,
Bondarenko T.
, and
Minachev K. M.
, Kinet. Catal. , 1989 , 30 , 193 .
90.
Ichikawa T.
,
Yamaguchi M.
, and
Yoshida H.
, Chem. Lett. , 1989 , 1472 .
91.
Goldfarb D.
,
Strohmaler K. G.
,
Vaughan D. E. W.
,
Thomann H.
,
Poluektov O. G.
, and
Schmidt J.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1996 , 118 , 4665 .
92.
Rhodes C. J.
, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 1993 , 72 , 111 .
93.
Harvey G.
,
Prins R.
,
Crockett R.
, and
Roduner E.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1996 , 92 , 2027 .
94.
Chen F. R.
, and
Fripiat J. J.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1992 , 96 , 819 .
95.
Rhodes C. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2 , 1992 , 235 .
96.
Jackson R. A.
, and
Rhodes C. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 1984 , 1278 .
97.
Jackson R. A.
, and
Rhodes C. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2 , 1985 , 121 .
98.
Liu W.
,
Komaguchi K.
,
Shiotani M.
,
Michalik J.
, and
Lund A.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2000 , 2 , 2515 .
99.
Liu W.
,
Shiotani M.
,
Michalik J.
, and
Lund A.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2001 , 3 , 3532 .
100.
Liu W.
,
Yamanaka S.
,
Shiotani M.
,
Michalik J.
, and
Lund A.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2001 , 3 , 1611 .
101.
Rhodes C. J.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans , 1991 , 87 , 3179 .
102.
Liu W.
,
Lund A.
,
Shiotani M.
,
Michalik J.
,
Biglino D.
, and
Bonora M.
, App. Magn. Reson. , 2003 , 24 , 285 .
103.
Yahiro H.
,
Lund A.
, and
Shiotani M.
, Spectrochimica Acta Part A , 2004 , 60 , 1267 .
104.
Biglino D.
,
Li H.
,
Erickson R.
,
Lund A.
,
Yahiro H.
, and
Shiotani M.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 1999 , 1 , 2887 .
105.
Li H.
,
Yahiro H.
,
Komaguchi K.
,
Shiotani M.
,
Sagstuen E.
, and
Lund A.
, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials , 1999 , 30 , 275 .
106.
Hirano T.
,
Li W.
,
Abrams L.
,
Krusic P. J.
,
Ottaviani M. F.
, and
Turro N. J.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1999 , 121 , 7170 .
107.
Lem G.
, and
Turro N. J.
, Chem. Comm. , 2000 , 393 .
108.
Turro N. J.
,
Lei X.-G.
,
Jockusch S.
,
Li W.
,
Liu Z.
,
Abrams L.
, and
Ottaviani M. F.
, J. Org. Chem. , 2002 , 67 , 2606 .
109.
Horano T.
,
Li W.
,
Abrams L.
,
Krusic P. J.
,
Ottaviani M. F.
, and
Turro N. J.
, J. Org. Chem. , 2000 , 65 , 1319 .
110.
Turro N. J.
,
Jockusch S.
, and
Lei X.-G.
, J. Org. Chem. , 2002 , 67 , 5779 .
111.
Liu Z.
,
Ottaviani M. F.
,
Abrams L.
,
Lei X.
, and
Turro N. J.
, J. Phys. Chem. A , 2004 , 108 , 8040 .
112.
Ottaviani M. F.
,
Turro N. J.
,
Jockusch S.
, and
Tomalia D. A.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2003 , 107 , 2046 .
113.
Lei X.-G.
,
Jockusch S.
,
Ottaviani M. F.
, and
Turro N. J.
, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. , 2003 , 2 , 1095 .
114.
Fox M. A.
, and
Dulay M. T.
, Chem. Rev. , 1993 , 93 , 341 .
115.
Serpone N.
, Res. Chem. Intermed. , 1994 , 20 , 953 .
116.Photocatalytic Purification of Water and Air , 1993 , ed.
Ollis D. F.
, and
Al-Ekabi H.
Elservier , Amsterdam .
117.Photocatalysis: Fundamentals and Applications , 1989 , ed.
Serpone N.
, and
Pelizetti E.
Wiley , New York .
118.
Grela M. A.
,
Coronel M. E. J.
, and
Colussi A. J.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 1996 , 100 , 16940 .
119.
Schwarz P. F.
,
Turro N. J.
,
Bossmann S. H.
,
Braun A. M.
,
Abdel Wahib A.-M. A.
, and
Durr H.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 1997 , 101 , 7127 .
120.
Brezova V.
,
Tarabek P.
,
Dvoranova D.
,
Stasko A.
, and
Biskupic S.
, J. Photchem. Photobiol. A: Chemistry , 2003 , 155 , 179 .
121.
Brezova V.
,
Gabcova S.
,
Dvoranova D.
, and
Stasko A.
, J. Photchem. Photobiol. A: Biology , 2005 , 79 , 121 .
122.
Chen Y.
,
Li D.
,
Wang X.
,
Wu L.
,
Wang X.
, and
Fu X.
, New J. Chem. , 2005 , 29 , 1514 .
123.
Choi W.
,
Lee J.
,
Kim S.
,
Hwang S.
,
Lee M. C.
, and
Lee T. K.
, Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry , 2003 , 9 , 96 .
124.
Chatterjee D.
, and
Mahata A.
, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chemistry , 2004 , 165 , 19 .
125.
Dutta P. K.
,
Pehkonen S. O.
,
Sharma V. K.
, and
Ray A. K.
, Environmental Science and Technology , 2005 , 39 , 1827 .
126.
Ryu J.
, and
Choi W.
, Environmental Science and Technology , 2004 , 38 , 2928 .
127.
Kim J. H.
, and
Lee H. I.
, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering , 2004 , 21 , 116 .
128.
Hernandez-Alsonso M. D.
,
Coronado J. M.
,
Maira A. J.
,
Soria J.
,
Loddo V.
, and
Augugliaro V.
, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental , 2002 , 39 , 257 .
129.
Nguyen V. N. H.
,
Amal R.
, and
Beydoun D.
, Chemical Engineering Science , 2003 , 58 , 4429 .
130.
Tachikawa T.
,
Tojo S.
,
Fujitsuka M.
, and
Majima T.
, Chem. Phys. Lett. , 2004 , 392 , 50 .
131.
Murphy D. M.
,
Griffiths E. W.
,
Rowlands C. C.
,
Hancock F. E.
, and
Giamello E.
, Chem. Comm. , 1997 , 2177 .
132.
Antcliff K. L.
,
Murphy D. M.
,
Griffiths E.
, and
Giamello E.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2003 , 5 , 4306 .
133.
Attwood A. A.
,
Edwards J. L.
,
Rowlands C. C.
, and
Murphy D. M.
, J. Phys. Chem. A , 2003 , 107 , 1779 .
134.
Nosaka Y.
,
Kishimoto M.
, and
Nishino J.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 1998 , 102 , 10279 .
135.
Dubinski A. A.
,
Perekhodtsev G. D.
,
Poluektov O. G.
,
Rajh T.
, and
Thurnauer M. C.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2002 , 106 , 938 .
136.
Egerton T. A.
,
Harris E.
,
Lawson E. J.
,
Mile B.
, and
Rowlands C. C.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2000 , 2 , 3275 .
137.
Murphy D. M.
, and
Giamello E.
, Specialist Periodical Reports: Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, Volume 18 , 2002 , The Royal Society of Chemistry , Cambridge , p. 183 .
138.
Weil J. A.
,
Bolton J. R.
, and
Wertz J. E.
, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, Elementary Theory and Practical Applications , 1994 , Wiley-Interscience , New York .
139.
Chiesa M.
,
Giamello E.
,
Murphy D. M.
,
Pacchioni G.
,
Paganini M. C.
,
Soave R.
, and
Sojka Z.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2001 , 105 , 497 .
140.
Kohno Y.
,
Tanaka T.
,
Funabiki T.
, and
Yoshida S.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2000 , 2 , 2635 .
141.
Bedilo A. F.
, and
Volodin A. M.
, Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical , 2000 , 158 , 405 .
142.
Bedilio A. F.
,
Ivanova A. S.
,
Pakhomov N. A.
, and
Volodin A. M.
, Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical , 2000 , 158 , 409 .
143.
Bedilo A. F.
,
Timoshok A. V.
, and
Volodin A. M.
, Catalysis Letters , 2000 , 68 , 209 .
144.
Timofeeva M. N.
,
Ayupov A. B.
,
Volodin A. M.
,
Pak Yu. R.
,
Volkova G. G.
, and
Echevskii G. V.
, Kinetics and Catalysis , 2005 , 46 , 123 .
145.
Zhang Z.
,
Berg A.
,
Levanon H.
,
Fessenden R. W.
, and
Meisel D.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2003 , 125 , 7959 .
146.
Chechik V.
,
Wellsted H. J.
,
Korte A.
,
Gilbery B. C.
,
Caldararu H.
,
Ionita P.
, and
Caragheorgheopol A.
, Faraday Disc. Chem. Soc. , 2004 , 125 , 279 .
147.
Matsuzaki T.
,
Uda T.
,
Mazusaka A.
,
Keulks G. W.
, and
Howe R. F.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1980 , 102 , 7511 .
148.
Carley A. F.
,
Edwards H. A.
,
Mile B.
,
Roberts M. W.
,
Rowlands C. C.
,
Jackson S. D.
, and
Hancock F. E.
, Chem. Comm. , 1994 , 1407 .
149.
Carley A. F.
,
Edwards H. A.
,
Mile B.
,
Roberts M. W.
,
Rowlands C. C.
,
Hancock F. E.
, and
Jackson S. D.
, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1994 , 90 , 3341 .
150.
Burt A.
,
Emery M.
,
Maher J.
, and
Mile B.
, Magn. Reson. Chem. , 2001 , 39 , 85 .
151.
Lee J.
,
Dougherty D. B.
, and
Yates J. T.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2006 , 128 , 6008 .
152.
Lee J.
,
Dougherty D. B.
, and
Yates J. T.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2006 , 110 , 9939 .
153.
Pergushov V. I.
,
Klimenko T. A.
,
Tyurin D. A.
, and
Vorob'ev A.Kh.
, Russian Chemical Bulletin, International Edition , 2001 , 50 , 2384 .
154.
Osokina N.Yu.
,
Pergushov V. I.
, and
Mel'nikov M.Ya.
, High Energy Chemistry , 2002 , 36 , 240 .
155.
Radtzig V. A.
, Kinetics and Catalysis , 2002 , 43 , 802 .
156.
Radtzig V. A.
, Kinetics and Catalysis , 2005 , 46 , 615 .
157.
Permanov D. G.
, and
Radtzig V. A.
, Kinetics and Catalysis , 2004 , 45 , 293 .
158.
Buchanan A. C.
,
Kidder M. K.
, and
Britt P. F.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2003 , 125 , 11806 .
159.
Caregnato P.
,
Mora V. C.
,
Le Roux G. C.
,
Matire D. O.
, and
Gonzalez N. C.
, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2003 , 107 , 6131 .
160.
Rhodes C. J.
,
Reid I. D.
, and
Zimmermann U.
, Chem. Comm. , 2002 , 1092 .
161.
Vezenov D. V.
,
Golubev V. B.
, and
Melnikov V. P.
, Macromolecules , 2003 , 36 , 1819 .
162.
Miwa Y.
,
Tanase T.
,
Yamamoto K.
,
Sakaguchi M.
,
Sakai M.
, and
Shimada S.
, Macromolecules , 2003 , 36 , 3235 .
163.
von Werne T. A.
,
Germick D. S.
,
Hagberg E. C.
,
Sheares V. V.
,
Hawker C. J.
, and
Carter K. R.
, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2003 , 125 , 3831 .
164.
Dargaville T. R.
,
George G. A.
,
Hill D. J. T.
, and
Whittaker A. K.
, Prog. Polymer Sci. , 2003 , 28 , 1355 .
165.
Panchenko A.
,
Dilger H.
,
Kerres J.
,
Hein M.
,
Ullrich A.
,
Kaz T.
, and
Roduner E.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2004 , 6 , 2891 .
166.
Bertholon I.
,
Hommel H.
,
Labarre D.
, and
Vauthier C.
, Langmuir , 2006 , 22 , 5485 .
167.
Ruda T. A.
, and
Dutta P. K.
, Environmental Science and Technology , 2005 , 39 , 6147 .
168.
Egerton T. A.
,
Kosa S. A. M.
, and
Christiansen P. A.
, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2006 , 8 , 398 .
169.
Horwell C. J.
,
Fenoglio I.
,
Ragnarsdottir K. V.
,
Sparks R. S. J.
, and
Fubini B.
, Environmental Research , 2003 , 93 , 202 .
170.
Kristovich R. L.
, and
Dutta P. K.
, Environmental Science and Technology , 2005 , 39 , 6971 .
171.
Gournis D.
,
Karakassides M. A.
, and
Petridis D.
, Phys. Chem. Minerals , 2002 , 29 , 155 .
172.
Borda M. J.
,
Elsetinow A. R.
,
Strongin D. R.
, and
Schoonen M. A.
, Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta , 2003 , 67 , 935 .
173.
Fenoglio I.
,
Tomatis M.
,
Lison D.
,
Muller J.
,
Fonseca A.
,
Nagy J. B.
, and
Fubini B.
, Free Radical Biology and Medicine , 2006 , 40 , 1227 .
174.
Walters C. C.
,
Keleman S. R.
,
Kwaitek P. J.
,
Pottorf R. J.
,
Mankiewiez P. J.
,
Curry D. J.
, and
Putney K.
, Organic Geochemistry , 2006 , 37 , 408 .