Defence mechanisms as predictors of trust and positive relationships in top management teams

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Top managers are heavily exposed to strong negative emotions due to the difficult decisive situations that they experience and the persistent pressure of time and uncertainty. At the same time, the relationships they build within TMTs shape their decisions, experiences and reactions at work. The paper refers to defence mechanisms as relatively persistent means of individual response to unwanted emotions and affects.

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of the paper is to examine the defence mechanisms of TMT members as antecedents of perceived trustworthiness of other team members and positive relationships in the team.

METHODS:

The empirical study was conducted in a sample of 123 members of top management teams representing furniture industry companies in Poland.

RESULTS:

The results show that defence mechanisms determine TMT members’ perception of trustworthiness of other team-members and that perceived trustworthiness mediates the relation between the defence mechanisms of TMT members and their evaluation of relationships within a team.

CONCLUSIONS:

The study explains links between individual characteristics of TMT members and processes within the teams. It contributes to upper echelon theory and literature on trust and positive relationships at work. It also contributes to the line of research introducing unconscious processes and emotions to management studies.

Prof. Aldona Glińska-Neweś PhD is a professor of management at the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland. Her research focuses on organizational behaviour and responsible business. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5415-1563.

Prof. Adela Barabasz PhD is a professor of management at the Faculty of Management, The Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland. She is also a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist of the Polish Psychiatric Association. Her research focuses on psychoanalytical and psychodynamic approaches to management. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2926-3029.

Iwona Escher PhD is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland. Her research interests focus on marketing, qualitative research methods, consumer behavior, inter-organizational collaboration, and corporate volunteering. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2053-0549.

Yusheng Fu is a PhD candidate in Academia Copernicana –a doctoral school at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland. He is interested in organizational behavior and new methodological approaches in management.

1 Introduction

Upper echelon theory (UET) has been focal in research on top executives since the seminal publication of Hambrick and Mason [1]. According to the theory, the organisation should be considered as a reflection of its top managers who play a central role in modelling major organisational outcomes [1, 2]. Moreover, it is the top management team (TMT), rather than the individual top manager, that have the greatest influence on organisational functioning [3, 4].

Two major research trends in the field of TMTs refer to TMT processes and TMT composition [5 –7]. The first trend encompasses processes by which top management teams manage their tasks [7]. They refer, first of all, to group dynamics, including social interaction and integration among TMT members [8, 9]. Among the processes studied, a metaconstruct of TMT behavioural integration is of particular interest. This includes social integration, which is understood as perceived harmonious relationships and the affective component of TMT members’ attraction [7, 10]. Decisions made by behaviourally integrated management teams lead to better economic achievements while a positive relational climate spread throughout the organization supporting employee performance [7, 8]. Surprisingly, studies on fundamental dimensions of relationships quality are scarce; specifically, very few studies have been devoted to analyse trust in TMTs (e.g. [11 –13]) and none, to our knowledge, has tackled positive interpersonal relationships in these teams. Addressing the continuous call for research regarding the processes within TMTs [7 , 14], in our paper we examine antecedents of trust and positive relationships in top management teams which are also rarely studied.

The aforementioned antecedents represent, simultaneously, the second trend in TMT research. In this trend, organisational processes and outcomes are related to TMT members’ characteristics used as a proxy for their psychological perceptions and processes [7, 15]. Although there is a move away from studies on individual characteristics to more complex constructs, such as cognitive styles and values [e.g. 14, 16], there is still a need for research regarding all the aforementioned aspects and their mutual relations [2 , 17].

In our approach, we propose to include top managers’ defence mechanisms [18 –21] amongst individual characteristics determining TMTs’ processes –notably, the relationships in these teams. This is in line with calls from social constructionists and cognitive psychologists to include emotions in management studies [22 –24], and calls by psychoanalysts to study unconscious aspects of organisational life [25 –27]. To our knowledge, studies regarding the influence of individual defence mechanisms on team relationships have never been conducted.

Our study answers the call for research going inside the “black box” of the upper echelons, and specifically, it addresses the aforementioned research gaps related to the lack of research on TMTs’ behavioral integration and managers’ individual characteristics influencing it, including unconscious processes and emotions [2 , 25]. Specifically, the aim of the study is to examine the defence mechanisms of TMT members as antecedents of perceived trustworthiness of other team members and positive relationships in the team. The empirical study was conducted in a sample of 123 members of top management teams representing furniture industry companies in Poland. Our theoretical model was tested using structural equation modelling (SEM).

The study contributes to literature on trust and positive relationships at work, and upper echelon theory, by explaining links between individual characteristics of TMT members and processes within the teams. It also contributes to the line of research introducing unconscious processes and emotions to management studies.

In this article, first we present the theoretical grounding, and specifically the importance of relationships in TMTs, with particular emphasis on trust and positive relationships at work, antecedents of relationships at work, and the nature of defence mechanisms. The theoretical grounding is followed by hypothesis development. Then the methodology and results of the survey are presented, followed by discussion, managerial implications, and the limitations of the study.

2 Theoretical background

2.1 Importance of relationships in TMTs

Relationships built at work are of particular importance as a source of individual well-being, job satisfaction, motivation, work engagement, organisational commitment etc. [28, 29]. They shape decisions, experiences, and reactions at work [30, 31]. Regarding TMTs, it is argued that behaviourally integrated teams are likely to produce more quality decisions leading to better economic achievements than less behaviourally integrated TMTs [7, 8]. As Smith et al. [32] explain, “top management teams that work well together react faster, are more flexible, use superior problem-solving techniques, and are more productive and efficient than less integrative teams” (p. 432). TMTs’ social integration affects also organisational performance because the way TMT members behave and act signals the norms and expectations regarding other employees’ behaviours [7]. If there is positive relational dynamics within the TMT, it creates a positive relational context that supports employees’ performance.

Nevertheless, studies on two fundamental dimensions of relationships quality, i.e. trust and positive relationships in TMTs, are scarce.

2.2 Trust within TMTs

Trust emerged as a central construct in a variety of studies [33 –36]. It refers to a belief that one can place confidence and/or faith in the fairness, honesty, and integrity of another person [37].

Trust is a multi-component variable with distinct but interrelated dimensions [38]. Most authors agree on operationalising it into dispositional, cognitive, and behavioural dimensions, specifically: propensity to trust, perceived trustworthiness, and actual trusting behaviours [38, 39]. However, perceived trustworthiness is considered a key cognitive predictor of trust [40].

Within TMTs, trust is considered a key psychological state enabling team members to engage in learning from failures [11, 41]. This is because trust increases team members’ sense of confidence to speak up, and allows them to discuss openly, and to admit errors and problems and take responsibility for them. Trust among TMT members reduces opportunistic and self-interested behaviours and dysfunctional conflicts, and promotes knowledge sharing and greater reflexivity [8 , 41]. A study by Lin et al. [13] suggests that the TMT trust climate mediates the relationship between CEO transformational leadership and firm performance.

Being the most critical feature of any kind of dyadic relationship, trust is considered as “a necessary but not sufficient condition for relationship effectiveness” [37, p. 1389]. Therefore, in our study of TMTs we also include the construct of positive relationships at work.

2.3 Positive interpersonal relationships in TMTs

Positive perspective in management studies [42 –44] has established grounds for research on how high-quality relationships affect employee attitudes and behaviours. Most authors associate positive relationships at work with the concept of high-quality connections proposed by Dutton and Heaphy [45].

Positive relationships lead to favourable work attitudes and behaviours as well as greater mental well-being, while negative interactions at the workplace generate negative affective reactions and reduce individual well-being and health, and are damaging to individuals and organisations [30, 45]. Developing high-quality connections at work has significant implications for the achievement of both individual and organisational outcomes [37, 46]. Positive relationships increase the capacity to achieve extraordinary outcomes by increasing flow of resources in networks and coordination of interdependent tasks [47]. Experience of positive emotions associated with relationships at work enhances intellectual and psychological resources that enable employees to explore, learn, and perform their jobs creatively [29 , 48].

Dutton and Heaphy [45] distinguished three clusters defining high-quality connections: connection capacity, subjective experience and physical effects. Because the aim of our study refers to emotional and unconscious side of managerial work, we use connection capacity as the indicator of relationships’ quality in TMTs. Connection capacity includes three dimensions: emotional carrying capacity, tensility and connectivity. Emotional capacity refers to the ease with which a full spectrum of emotions can be expressed thanks to the perception that the relationship is strong enough to withstand both positive and negative emotions. Tensility is the relationship’s capacity to bend and withstand strains generated by the variety of circumstances met in the workplace, particularly those that are unpleasant and traumatic, such as crises or failures. Connectivity refers to capacity for openness to new ideas and influences, and to deflect behaviours hindering creative processes.

Relationships at work are studied mostly as the key component of the psychosocial work environment being considered among antecedents of organisational processes [46 , 50]. At the same time, research on antecedents of relationships at work, particularly of high-quality/positive relationships, is scarce.

2.4 Antecedents of TMT relationships

Antecedents of relationships at work are generated by an interaction between two levels: the situational/organisational and the personal/individual [28]. Situational and organisational characteristics capable of supporting development of relationships at work include, among others, frequent interactions and physical proximity in the office [51, 52], overall feeling of positive work environment [53], and career development [54].

The search for individual antecedents of work relationships is based on the assumption that personal backgrounds, experience etc. brought by individuals to work generate their style of interaction, which influences the development of relationships and their specific dimensions [37 , 55–57]. Many authors argue for extending management studies to encompass emotions and feelings as antecedents of the majority of organisational behaviours, including relationships at work [58, 59]. This is particularly relevant in TMT studies because due to pressure of time and uncertainty managers are exposed to stimuli that cause a wide spectrum of emotions, often negative and of varying intensity [60 –64]. Cognitive processes, attributions and perception of specific managerial situations are affected by emotions and feelings [65].

While sources of affect may vary, they are usually associated with similarity based on demographics, experiences, and other individual characteristics [66]. Decidedly less research has been devoted to unconscious psychological processes and their relations with emotions, although scientists representing group-analysis, psychoanalytical and psychodynamic approaches to organisation call for research in this regard [21 , 68]. Researchers emphasise the need to consider irrational aspects of organisational members’ functioning that determine the way they experience ambivalence or other, unpleasant, emotions. As a result, they indicate the need for research on hidden individual mechanisms affecting the functioning of groups and organisations [see: 26, 27, 69]. Hence, inclusion of defence mechanisms is becoming particularly relevant.

2.5 Defence mechanisms

Emotions are, by nature, subjective states experienced impermanently in a specific context, so their objective assessment and study grounded in a rigorous methodology are very difficult [70, 71]. This directs researchers’ attention towards defence mechanisms as relatively persistent ways of responding to unwanted emotions and affects such as embarrassment, shame, anxiety, anger, fear, or hatred [25 , 72]. Defence mechanisms are generally used unconsciously by individuals and arise automatically in response to psychic danger [18 –20]. They are adopted in order to protect individuals from experiencing unwanted and unpleasant emotional states; they alleviate anxiety and other inner unpleasant states, emotions, and affects [73, 74]. The DSM-III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) offers a definition of defence mechanisms as “patterns of feelings, thoughts, or behaviours that are relatively involuntary and arise in response to perceptions of psychic danger.” [75, p. 393].

So far, there is no universally accepted and unequivocal classification of defence mechanisms [18 , 76]. According to the psychoanalytical approach, the group of primary defence mechanisms includes splitting, projection, repression, and projective identification [76], as well as acting out, isolation, devaluation, somatisation, autistic fantasy, passive aggression, dissociation, and displacement [77]. These are the earliest shaped mechanisms that operate on the unconscious level and to the greatest extent interfere with an appropriate response to external stimuli [76]. Mechanisms such as regression, reaction formation, denial, undoing, idealisation, and pseudo-altruism are categorised as neurotic mechanisms [77]. They facilitate adaptation to reality, while possible damages, e.g. disturbances in perception, mainly apply to the intrapsychic world of an individual, and not so much to relations with others. Mechanisms of compensation, suppression, anticipation, sublimation, and humour are classified as mature mechanisms [77, 78]. They help the individual to deal with difficult psychological reality in the most constructive way, supporting effective coping with emotional challenges without distorting perception of the real world.

3 Hypothesis development

3.1 Defence mechanisms and trust

Positive and negative emotional states shape relationship actors’ behaviour and condition their perceptions of the trustworthiness of others [79, 80]. Affect promotes deeper and more stable levels of trust than rational arguments based on predictability, by forming the basis for benevolent actions that build trust [e.g., 39, 81, 82]. Because TMT members are particularly exposed to a wide spectrum of emotions, often negative [60 –62], and defence mechanisms help them to deal with unwanted and unpleasant emotional states [73, 74], we hypothesise:

H1: Defence mechanisms of TMT members determine their perception of the trustworthiness of other TMT members.

More specifically, the maturity of defence mechanisms determines how individuals deal with emotions, affects the adequacy of their assessments of the external reality, and supports tolerance to ambivalence and uncertainty [18 , 73]. Particularly, in difficult situations violating the sense of security, trusting others is a prerequisite and mature reaction that enables individuals to cope with the situation [59 , 85]. Mature defence mechanisms support effective coping with emotional challenges without distorting the perception of the real world; they reinforce openness in information sharing, which may transform into trust [86]. Thus, we pose:

H1a: A predominance of mature defence mechanisms (MDM) among TMT members is associated with more positive evaluation of the trustworthiness of other TMT members.

Immature and neurotic mechanisms disrupt appropriate response to external stimuli [76 , 87]. Immature mechanisms lead to distortions and disruptions in relations with others [20 , 88], thus we hypothesise:

H1b: A predominance of immature defence mechanisms (IDM) among TMT members is associated with more negative evaluation of the trustworthiness of other TMT members.

Neurotic mechanisms are aimed at maintaining stability and increasing the sense of security, regardless of the circumstances and real assessment of reality; therefore, temporarily they may improve interpersonal relationships, but in the long run they can lead to relationships being destroyed [20 , 88]. We pose:

H1c: A predominance of neurotic defence mechanisms (NDM) among TMT members is associated with more negative evaluation of the trustworthiness of other TMT members.

3.2 Defence mechanisms and positive relationships

Expressing positive feelings and emotions at work leads to smoother social interactions, more helping behaviour, and favourable evaluations of others [89]. Affective responses like anger, disappointment, or joy influence patterns of attachment to others [81, 82]. Negative emotions play an important role in interpersonal conflict, being its key dimension [90]. Following previous argumentation regarding managers’ exposure to emotions [60 –62], and the role of defence mechanisms in dealing with them [63, 74], we hypothesise:

H2: Defence mechanisms of TMT members determine their perceptions of relationships with other team members.

The dominance of immature or neurotic mechanisms disrupts adequate response and prevents adjustments to the requirements of the external world [21 , 91]. Both lead to disruptions in interpersonal relationships, even though neurotic mechanisms may improve relationships temporarily [21 , 91]. Conversely, mature mechanisms help to deal with difficult psychological reality in the most constructive way; they effectively support an individual in dealing with emotional challenges without distorting perception of the real world [21 , 91]. The more mature defence mechanisms individuals have, the better they deal with emotional problems, anxiety, uncertainty, and feelings of lacking influence over a situation. Therefore, we pose:

H2a. A predominance of mature defence mechanisms (MDM) among TMT members is associated with more positive evaluation of relationships with other team members. H2b. A predominance of immature defence mechanisms (IDM) among TMT members is associated with more negative evaluation of relationships with other team members. H2c. A predominance of neurotic defence mechanisms (NDM) among TMT members is associated with more negative evaluation of relationships with other team members.

3.3 Trust and positive relationships in TMTs

Trust and positive relationships at work are considered amongst a variety of dimensions of work relationships indicated in the literature [30, 37]. At the same time, the development of positive mutual work relationships is influenced by trust, which must be present for high-quality connections to occur [37, 92]. Trust is argued to be a key aspect and essential lubricant of successful work relationships, shaping employees’ interactions [37 , 92]. Defence mechanisms influence appropriacy of assessments of the external world, including trustworthiness of others, and results in greater stability and predictability of one’s behaviour in the eyes of other members of the team [21] which may lead to perceptions of relationship quality. Thus, we hypothesise:

H3: Evaluation of trustworthiness mediates the relation between defence mechanisms of TMT members and their evaluation of relationships within with other team members.

The final hypothetical model is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Hypothetical model.

4 Method

4.1 Sample

The study was conducted in one industrial sector in order to exclude potential differentiated impact of industry dynamism as an external factor that might moderate the studied phenomena [93, 94]. The furniture industry was chosen because it plays a significant role in the Polish economy, and can be characterised by a significant variety of company characteristics [95 –98]; it allowed collecting data from sufficient number of companies operating in rather homogeneous environment but representing differentiated approaches to build management teams. The project aim was to investigate the group dynamics in TMTs, so only medium-sized and large companies were taken into account as the initial research population. Such companies were, according to our assumption, more predisposed to be governed by TMTs than were small companies. In 2018 the sector included approx. 400 large and medium-sized companies accounting for three quarters of its total production [95].

The study was carried out between March and September of 2019 using the CATI technique. We collected 123 complete answers of respondents representing companies where strategic decision-making process is conducted by TMTs. We defined top management team following previous studies [e.g. 7] that advocate executives with whom the CEO shares the strategic decision-making process. We controlled for team manner of decision-making by asking a question whether strategic decisions are made individually or with the participation of other people.

Although the sample size is not big at the first glance, it represents more than a quarter of the population of medium-sized and large companies of the industry. Each respondent represented one company, i.e. 123 companies were represented in the data-set. TMTs that the respondents were members of, comprised of between two and eight persons with the majority of teams of five members (41%). The sample was dominated by men (60.2%), respondents aged 31–39 (48.8%), with non-economic education (68.3%), in particular with technical education (sector-related studies) (35.8%), and having some experience in TMTs, i.e. from one to three years (42.3%) or more than three years (36.6%).

4.2 Measures

4.2.1 Defence mechanisms

A reduced version of The defence style questionnaire 40 (DSQ-40) was selected over other assessment methods [77]. The DSQ-40 is designed to elicit the respondent’s style for dealing with psychic danger, based on the assumption that individuals can accurately comment on their behaviour from a distance [104]. This questionnaire is self-administered and consists of short statements, as opposed to the use of vignettes or clinical observation. Mature defence mechanisms (MDM) include eight items, with a sample item: “I am able to laugh at myself pretty easily.” Immature defence mechanisms (IDM) include eight items, and a sample item is “I ignore danger as if I was Superman.” Neurotic defence mechanisms (NDM) include 24 items with a sample item: “I always feel that someone I know is like a guardian Angel.” The items were measured with a 9-point scale ranging from 1 (“Completely Disagree”) to 9 (“Completely Agree”). The alpha reliability coefficients for mature, immature and neurotic defence mechanisms were: 0.60, 0.74 and 0.54, respectively.

4.2.2 Perceived trustworthiness

To measure perceived trustworthiness of other TMT members we used the Team Trust Scale proposed and validated by Adams and Sartori [100]. The scale consists of 20 items measured with a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“Completely Disagree”) to 5 (“Completely Agree”). Sample items include: “I believe that my teammates have my best interests in mind”, “I know what to expect from my team”. The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.70.

4.2.3 Positive relationships

To measure positive relationships within TMTs we used a scale of connection capacity based on Dutton and Heaphy’s [45] operationalisations proposed and validated by Carmeli et al. [46] and Carmeli [50]. Sample items of this 13-item scale include: “my co-workers and I do not have any difficulty expressing our feelings to each other”, “we cope well with the conflicts we experience at work.” The items are measured with a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“Completely Disagree”) to 5 (“Completely Agree). The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.67.

4.3 Analyses

We employed two-step approach to structural equation modelling (SEM). The first step was to analyse descriptive statistics and reliability test via SPSS (version 26), as well as to test the common method variance (CMV). Then, we used Amos (version 23) to test the hypotheses in our model. The bootstrap method (5000 times) tested the mediation in the model in order to receive better model fit [101; 102].

5 Results

5.1 Descriptive statistics

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and reliability test. Cronbach’s alpha reflects a reasonable reliability of the scales.

Table 1
Descriptive statistics and reliability test

Mean SD α 1 2 3 4

MDM 6.114 1.201 0.60

IDM 4.188 1.699 0.74 –0.17

NDM 4.301 1.488 0.54 –0.008 0.557*

Trustworthiness 3.940 0.787 0.70 0.28 –0.382* –0.358*

Connection capacity 3.656 0.755 0.67 0.303 –0.397* –0.246 0.561*

	Mean	SD	α	1	2	3	4
MDM	6.114	1.201	0.60
IDM	4.188	1.699	0.74	–0.17
NDM	4.301	1.488	0.54	–0.008	0.557***
Trustworthiness	3.940	0.787	0.70	0.28**	–0.382***	–0.358***
Connection capacity	3.656	0.755	0.67	0.303**	–0.397***	–0.246**	0.561***

Note: N = 123. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. See text for abbreviations.

Because all data were collected from the same sample at the same time point, the potential for Common Method Bias Variance (CMV) needs to be addressed [103]. Although the arguments of the existence of CMV are still debated [104], we have conducted Harmon’s one factor analysis, in order to test if our results were affected by CMV. Results of this analysis show five factors (28.756%, 13.114%, 8.367%, 7.290%, and 7.013%, respectively) and the total variance of 64.549%. It means that no single factor could account for the majority of the covariance among variables [103]. In other words, the influence of CMV is insignificant in our data.

5.2 SEM analysis

The bootstrap method (5000 times) has been used because the model fit indices of our data (Table 2) were not good (χ² = 141.200, df = 83, χ²/df = 1.701, RMSEA = 0.076, TLI/NNFI = 0.822, CFI = 0.860). The acceptable level of the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is below 0.08 (or even below 0.05), and the comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker Lewis index (TLI) are above 0.9 [105]. Moreover, multivariate normality, as the assumption of SEM model, is not supported in the model because Mardia’s coefficient for multivariate kurtosis is larger than 5 (5.831) which means the significant multivariate non-normality in the data [101]. To solve this problem, Fisher and King [102] suggest Bollen-Stein bootstrap p procedure to adjust the model fit indices. After applying this procedure (Table 2), the model fit indices are better than before (χ² = 96.178, df = 83, χ²/df = 1.159, RMSEA = 0.036, TLI/NNFI = 0.960, CFI = 0.968).

Table 2
Model fit

Model fit Bollen-Stein P Correction Acceptable level

Before After

Chi-sqaure 141.200 96.178

df 83 83

Chi-sqaure/df 1.701 1.159 <3

RMSEA 0.076 0.036 <0.08

TLI(NNFI) 0.822 0.960 >0.9

CFI 0.860 0.968 >0.9

Model fit	Bollen-Stein P Correction	Acceptable level
Chi-sqaure	141.200	96.178
df	83	83
Chi-sqaure/df	1.701	1.159	<3
RMSEA	0.076	0.036	<0.08
TLI(NNFI)	0.822	0.960	>0.9
CFI	0.860	0.968	>0.9

Tables 3 4 present the hypotheses’ testing. Table 3 shows the result of direct relationships in the model. All defence mechanisms have significant influence on perceived trustworthiness of other TMT members. More specifically, mature defence mechanisms are positively associated with the perceived trustworthiness ( β= 0.093, p = 0.043, significant), while immature defence mechanisms (IDM: β= –0.148, p = 0.011, significant) and neurotic defence mechanisms (NDM: β= –0.247, p = 0.005, significant) are in negative associations with perceived trustworthiness of other TMT members. Therefore, H1 is supported. For hypothesis 2, only the direct relationship between immature defence mechanisms and connection capacity (H2b) exists, and it is negative ( β= –0.137, p = 0.028, significant). Therefore, H2b is supported.

Table 3

Results of SEM model

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Estimate (Unstd)	Standard Deviation	C.R.(Z)	Sig(P)	Standardized	Hypothesis	Result
MDM	Perceived trustworthiness	0.093	0.046	2.023	0.043*	0.290	H1a	supported
IDM	Perceived trustworthiness	–0.148	0.058	–2.554	0.011*	–0.304	H1b	supported
NDM	Perceived trustworthiness	–0.247	0.088	–2.816	0.005**	–0.449	H1c	supported
MDM	Positive relationships	–0.001	0.03	–0.021	0.983	–0.002	H2a	rejected
IDM	Positive relationships	–0.137	0.062	–2.197	0.028*	–0.289	H2b	supported
NDM	Positive relationships	0.156	0.094	1.662	0.096	0.292	H2c	rejected

Table 4

Indirect effects (Mediation)

Relationship	Point Estimate (Unstd.)	Standardized coefficient	Bootstrap 5000 times (95% Confidence Interval)
			Percentile	Bias-corrected Percentile			Two-tailed significance
			Lower	Upper	Lower	Upper
MDM->Perceived Trustworthiness->Positive relationships	0.070	0.226	0.054	0.536	0.067	0.594	0.001**
IDM->Perceived Trustworthiness->Positive relationships	–0.112	–0.236	–0.497	–0.036	–0.533	–0.060	0.01*
NDM->Perceived Trustworthiness->Positive relationships	–0.186	–0.350	–0.878	–0.056	–1.111	–0.100	0.005**

Note: Unstandardized Coefficients. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

To test the mediation effect (H3), we have used the bootstrap method (5000 times, 95% confidence interval), that is recommended non-parametric estimation on the indirect effects [101]. Results are presented in Table 4. All indirect effects are significant. Specifically, the data support the indirect positive effect between mature defence mechanisms (MDM) and positive relationships in teams, via perceived trustworthiness of other TMT members, and the indirect negative effects between both immature and neurotic defence mechanism and positive relationships via perceived trustworthiness. Hence, Hypothesis 3 is supported.

The final model is presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Final model.

6 Discussion

Effective teamwork in TMTs is crucial for business success [9]. Social integration of TMT members leads to more quality decisions and better economic achievements [7, 8]. Positive relational dynamics within TMTs creates also a positive relational context supporting employees’ performance [7]. On the other hand, organisational outcomes, including employee satisfaction, are associated with TMT members’ traits [1, 2].

The study aimed to examine the defence mechanisms of TMT members as antecedents of perceived trustworthiness of other team members and positive relationships in the team. Specifically, we examined links between defence mechanisms of TMT members (as relatively persistent ways of responding to psychic danger [75]), their perceptions of the trustworthiness of other team members, and the quality of relationships within the team. We hypothesised that defence mechanisms of TMT members determine their perception of the trustworthiness of other TMT members (H1), their perceptions of relationships with other team members (H2), and that perceived trustworthiness mediates the relation between defence mechanisms of TMT members and their evaluation of relationships within a team (H3).

The results of the study suggest that the defence mechanisms of managers may impact their perception of the trustworthiness of other TMT members. Specifically, a predominance of mature defence mechanisms leads to a more positive perception of the trustworthiness of other TMT members, while a predominance of either immature or neurotic mechanisms leads to more negative perception. The influence of affects on trust-related cognitions, i.e. perceptions, beliefs and judgments, has been described by many researchers [40 , 106]. The feelings-as-information model suggests that people use their apparent affective reactions as a basis for such judgments [40; 107]. Therefore, trust develops as the result of the complex interplay between individual experiential learning about the trustworthiness and judgments based on feelings and emotions [39 , 79]. Affects promote deeper and more stable levels of trust than those associated purely with rational arguments based primarily on predictability [40, 80]. Social interactions, specifically in organisational settings, are associated with a variety of emotions and affects. Hence, defence mechanisms, as relatively persistent ways of responding to unwanted emotions and affects, may play a role in shaping one’s perceptions, beliefs and judgments about the trustworthiness of others.

Our results regarding links between defence mechanisms and the perceived trustworthiness of others are reasonable in the light of the essence of defence mechanisms. Mature mechanisms support effective handling of emotional challenges without distortions in perception of the real world, while immature and neurotic mechanisms disrupt adequate response to external stimuli [20 , 83]. Mature defence mechanisms favour building constructive relationships within the group by lowering anxiety, which can open the way for cooperation and undertaking challenges [20, 86]. Immature mechanisms definitely hinder constructive cooperation because they distort perception of people and relationships [20, 88]. Neurotic mechanisms, in turn, are aimed at maintaining stability, which may mean maintaining good relationships with others, but this happens at the expense of extra energy to maintain a distorted notion of reality [20, 88]. Therefore, neurotic mechanisms are capable of improving relationships only in the short run; in the long term they may disturb relationships. Our study supports this notion regarding specific dimension of relationships, i.e. trust.

Contrary to our hypotheses regarding the direct relation between defence mechanisms of managers and their perception of relationships’ quality in TMTs, only in the case of immature mechanisms was this link negative and statistically significant as hypothesised. Relations between both mature and neurotic defence mechanisms and positive relationships were statistically insignificant. The statistical insignificance of the results may be due to the small research sample.

Nevertheless, the results of our study show a complex picture of links between defence mechanisms and perceived relationship quality. Connection capacity which was adopted to operationalise positive relationships in teams, stands for the relationship’s ability to deal with situations that are challenging in emotional terms [45]. Our study suggests it may diminish as immature defence mechanisms of relationship partners become more dominant, and this notion is in line with the essence of both defence mechanisms and dimensions of connection capacity. Its first dimension, i.e. emotional carrying capacity, refers to the ease of expressing a full spectrum of emotions within the relationship [45, 46]. It may be argued that, individually, such capacity is specific to people with a harmonious, mature personality of developed self-awareness and proper distance to self and others. Therefore, a relationship’s emotional carrying capacity is reduced by immature defence mechanisms among relationship partners. The second dimension, tensility, is the relationship’s capacity to bend and withstand strains generated by the variety of circumstances met in the workplace, including the unpleasant and the traumatic [45, 46]. Defence mechanisms are used to deal with internal conflicts, but these inner conflicts can also be triggered by external stimuli. The third dimension, i.e. connectivity, reflects a relationship’s capacity for openness to new ideas and influences [45, 46]. New situations arouse anxiety: that which is unknown and new violates the status quo, usually provoking fear, anxiety, and reluctance. Therefore, a predominance of immature defence mechanisms may negatively affect it by causing the individual capacity for openness, curiosity and such to decline.

In turn, in line with our hypothesis, the study suggests that defence mechanisms may have an indirect effect on perceived relationships in TMTs with a mediation role on perceived trustworthiness of other team members. In other words, there is a sequential relationship between defence mechanisms, perceived trustworthiness, and positive relationships within TMTs. The study suggests that mature defence mechanisms have a positive indirect effect on perceived relationship quality, while in the case of immature and neurotic mechanisms the indirect effect is negative. This is consistent with the aforementioned propositions regarding defence mechanisms’ influence on relationships with others. Specifically, mature mechanisms support effective handling of emotional challenges and reinforce relationships with others; immature mechanisms disrupt appropriate response to external stimuli and damage relationships; and neurotic mechanisms cause the same in the long term [21 , 87]. The mediating role of trust between defence mechanism and positive relationships may be due to trust being a prerequisite and mature reaction enabling individuals to cope with situations, particularly those violating the sense of security [59 , 85]. Our study suggests that mature defence mechanisms increase positive evaluation of the trustworthiness of others, which further leads to more positive evaluation of relationships. Immature and neurotic mechanisms make evaluation of the trustworthiness of others more negative and subsequently lowers evaluations of relationships in the team.

Our findings regarding links between perceived trustworthiness and perception of relationship in TMTs contribute to the research on relationships at work, and particularly to our understanding of mutual links between relationship dimensions. While studies on links between these dimensions are generally scarce, there is some evidence supporting the notion of trust as the antecedent of other relationship dimensions. In the model of relationship development, Ferris et al. [37] suggest that the initial stages are determined by judgments concerning future behaviours of relationship partners, which are marked by trust and respect. They condition and are further expanded by support and affect, including liking. In another study, Carmeli and Spreitzer [108] indicate the impact of trust on connectivity being among elements of connection capacity [45]. As the authors argue, trust cultivates openness and generativity, which manifest connectivity. Moreover, a trusting organisational environment fosters positive feelings and the vitality to participate and contribute to others in the organisation, leading to higher levels of psychological commitment to relationships with others [80 , 109].

Our study contributes to introducing a psychodynamic approach to organisational behaviour research. As pointed out by many researchers, there is the need for research into hidden phenomena such as defence mechanisms and their effects on the functioning of groups and organisations [see: 26, 27, 68]. Recognition of the psychological aspects of dealing with critical situations can contribute to better understanding of organisational behaviours and their determinants [86, 107]. This is particularly relevant in the case of top managers, who are remarkably exposed to difficult decisive situations leading to strong emotions, while their mutual relationships affect quality of decisions [7 , 110]. We believe that our study supports and strengthens this field of research in the organisational domain. Specifically, the study contributes to the understanding of the complexity of relationships at work and complements upper echelon theory by adding unconscious processes into studies of individual characteristics of TMT members that affect their decision-making processes.

6.1 Managerial implications

Research on defence mechanisms contribute to knowledge of what is below the surface of conscious cognition [67 , 111], and so they offer a rationale for seemingly ‘irrational’ decision-making processes and other managerial behaviours that are not always controlled or rational. The way managers use their emotional resources represent highly valued managerial skills [112] and may explain the functioning of both managerial teams and entire organisations. Through personal introspection and self-awareness managers can identify their own motives, and use alternative and more effective ways of behaving. This means that they can try to understand and integrate unconscious phenomena that control them, in order to increase self-knowledge and to operate more efficiently and effectively. Organisational life abounds with difficult and stressful situations; therefore, organisations need well-integrated managers, i.e. managers whose defence mechanisms are dominated by mature ones. It would be of particular value if HR departments in organisations supported their managers in identifying the defence mechanisms they use in different situations.

6.2 Limitations

As with every study, ours too has some limitations. First of all, common method bias should be mentioned, which is an inevitable threat for structured and self-reporting surveys. In order to alleviate this concern, we pretested the questionnaire and improved the item wording [113]. We also guaranteed respondents their anonymity and explained that there were no correct or incorrect responses, which should have helped to make respondents less likely to provide socially desirable answers and more consistent across questions [103]. Ex-post, Harmon’s one factor analysis was conducted in order to test if the results were affected by CMV. The results of this analysis proved that no single factor could account for the majority of the covariance among variables [103], so the influence of CMV is insignificant in our data. A longitudinal study is recommended in further research in order to confirm the causal direction presented by our model. The causal direction of our hypotheses was assumed for the purposes of the study, though future work would be needed to confirm the directionality.

In our approach, we measured defence mechanisms using DSQ-40, which is a recognised questionnaire used in this regard [77, 99]. However, the questionnaire has its limitations. Although people develop tendencies to use some mechanisms more often, they keep their entire spectrum. In other words, in any given difficult situation one can reach for defence mechanisms of any category: mature, neurotic, or immature. In order to deepen and verify the results obtained in our research, managers should be observed in the long term, both directly and directly, i.e. through observation, introspection, experiment, and questionnaire methods. It is necessary to study the functioning of managers with the explicit dominance of mature defence mechanisms and to compare the same aspects of the functioning of managers with a dominance of neurotic and immature defence mechanisms.

The study was conducted in one sector, i.e. the furniture industry. This had various advantages, including the possibility to treat factors external to the organisation as homogeneous. On the other hand, collecting data in one industry limits the possible sample size. While we have investigated managers representing more than a quarter of the population of medium-sized and large companies of the furniture industry in the country, the final number of responses was still a limitation, possibly making some results statistically insignificant. Also, we did not find any significant effect of demographic characteristics on analysed relations, which could be revealed in the case of a larger sample. At the same time, in our study we did not analyse contextual factors, assuming them as homogeneous, which may influence the results. Although defence mechanisms represent relatively persistent individual ways of responding to unwanted emotions [25 , 72], there are situational factors that influence relationships at work [51 –54]. Therefore, effects of contextual factors on the links studied in this paper cannot be completely neglected. Also conducting the study in diverse sectors and/or countries is recommended for further research as it will be capable of demonstrating effects of other factors related to industry dynamism and national culture.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Polish National Science Centre under Grant 2016/23/B/HS4/00861.

Author contributions

CONCEPTION: Aldona Glińska-Neweś

METHODOLOGY: Aldona Glińska-Neweś, Adela Barabasz and Iwona Escher

DATA COLLECTION: Iwona Escher

INTERPRETATION OR ANALYSIS OF DATA: Yusheng Fu

PREPARATION OF THE MANUSCRIPT: Aldona Glińska-Neweś and Adela Barabasz

REVISION FOR IMPORTANT INTELLECTUAL CONTENT: Aldona Glińska-Neweś and Adela Barabasz

SUPERVISION: Aldona Glińska-Neweś

References

Hambrick

, Mason

. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Acad Manage Rev. 1984;9(2):193–206.

Carpenter

, Geletkanycz

, Sanders

. Upper echelons research revisited: Antecedents, elements, and consequences of top management team composition. J Manage. 2004;30(6):749–78.

Graffin

, Wade

, Porac

, McNamee

. The Impact of CEO Status Diffusion on the Economic Outcomes of Other Senior Managers. Organization Science. 2008;19(3):457–74.

O’Reilly

, Snyder

, Boothe

. Executive team demography and organizational change. In: Huber GP, Glick WH, editors. Organizational change and redesign: Ideas and insights for improving performance. New York: Oxford University Press; 1993;147–75.

Boal

, Hooijberg

. Strategic leadership research: Moving on. Leadersh Q. 2001;11:515–49.

Edmondson

, Roberto

, Watkins

. A dynamic model of top management team effectiveness: Managing unstructured task streams. Leadersh Q. 2003;14(3):297–325.

Carmeli

. Top management team behavioral integration and the performance of service organizations. Group Organ Manag. 2008;33(6):712–35.

Ensley

, Pearson

, Amason

. Understanding the dynamics of new venture top management teams: cohesion, conflict, and new venture performance. J Bus Ventur. 2002;17(4):365–86.

Wei

, Lau

. Effective teamwork at the top: the evidence from China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 2012;23(9):1853–70.

10.

Simsek

, Lubatkin

, Veiga

, Dino

. Modeling the multilevel deter- minants of top management team behavioral integration. Acad Manage J. 2005;48(1):69–84.

11.

Carmeli

, Tishler

, Edmondson

. CEO relational leadership and strategic decision quality in top management teams: The role of team trust and learning from failure. Strateg Organ. 2012;10(1):31–54.

12.

MacCurtain

, Flood

, Ramamoorthy

, West

, Dawson

. The top management team, reflexivity, knowledge sharing and new product performance: A study of the Irish software industry. Creativity and Innovation Management. 2010;19(3):219–32.

13.

Lin

, Dang

TTH

, Liu

. CEO transformational leadership and firm performance: A moderated mediation model of TMT trust climate and environmental dynamism. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. 2016;33(4):981–1008.

14.

Sperber

, Linder

. The impact of top management teams on firm innovativeness: A configurational analysis of demographic characteristics, leadership style and team power distribution. Review of Managerial Science. 2018;12(1):285–316.

15.

She

, Li

, London

, Yang

. Effects of CEO narcissism on decision-making comprehensiveness and speed. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 2020;35(1):42–55.

16.

De Visser

, Faems

. Exploration and exploitation within firms: The impact of CEOs’ cognitive style on incremental and radical innovation performance. Creativity and Innovation Management. 2015;24(3):359–72.

17.

, Richard

, Zhang

, Macaulay

. Top Management Team Surface-Level Diversity, Strategic Change, and Long-Term Firm Performance: A Mediated Model Investigation. J Leadersh Organ Stud. 2019;26(3):304–18.

18.

Freud

. The ego and the mechanisms of defence. New York: International Universities Press; 1966.

19.

Diamond

. The social character of bureaucracy: Anxiety and ritualistic defense. In: Sievers B, editor. Psychoanalytic studies of organizations. London: Karnac Books; 2009;1–22.

20.

Long

. Beyond identifying social defences: ‘working through’ and lessons from people whispering. In: Armstrond D, Rustin M, editors. Social defences against anxiety: explorations in a paradigm. London: Karnac Books; 2015;39–49.

21.

Alsted

, Haslund

. Psychodynamic organisational theory. Key concepts and case studies. London: Routledge; 2020.

22.

Fineman

. editor. Emotion in organizations, London: Sage; 2003.

23.

Ashkanasy

. Emotions in organizations: a multilevel perspective. In: Dansereau F, Yammarino FJ, editors. Research in multi-level issues. Vol.2: Multi-level issues in organizational behavior and strategy. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing; 2003; 9–54.

24.

Lord

, Klimoski

, Kanfer

, editors. Emotions in the workplace: Understanding the structure and role of emotions in organizational behavior. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2002.

25.

Gabriel

. Organizations in depth. London: Sage; 2004.

26.

Sievers

, editor. Psychoanalytic studies of organizations. London: Karnac Books; 2009.

27.

Armstrong

, Rustin

, editors. Social defences against anxiety: Explorations in a paradigm. London: Karnac Books; 2015.

28.

Stoetzer

, Ahlberg

, Bergman

, Hallsten

, Lundberg

. Working conditions predicting interpersonal relationship problems at work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. 2009;18(4):424–41.

29.

Dutton

, Ragins

, editors. Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation. New Jersey: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.

30.

Turner de Tormes Eby

, Allen

. Personal relationships. The effect on employee attitudes, behavior, and well-being. New York: Routledge; 2012.

31.

Blustein

. A relational theory of working. J Vocat Behav. 2011;79:1–17.

32.

Smith

, Smith

, Olian

, Sims

, O’Bannon

, Scully

. Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Adm Sci Q. 1994;39(3):412–38.

33.

Lau

, Cobb

. Understanding the connections between relationship conflict and performance: The intervening roles of trust and exchange. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 2010;31(6):898–917.

34.

Woolthuis

RJAK

, Hillebrand

, Nooteboom

. Trust, contract and relationship development. Organization Studies. 2005;26(6):813–40.

35.

Rousseau

, Sitkin

, Burt

, Camerer

. Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Acad Manage Rev. 1998;23(3):393–404.

36.

Lewicka

. Employee Institutional Trust as an Antecedent of Diverse Dimensions of Organisational Commitment. Argumenta Oeconomica. 2020;1(44):321–40.

37.

Ferris

, Liden

, Munyon

, Summers

, Basik

, Buckley

. Relationships at work: Toward a multidimensional conceptualization of dyadic work relationships. J Manage. 2009;35(6):1379–403.

38.

Costa

, Roe

, Taillieu

. Trust within teams: The relation with performance effectiveness. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. 2001;10(3):225–44.

39.

Mayer

, Davis

, Schoorman

. An integrative model of organizational trust”, Acad Manage Rev. 1995;20(3):709–34.

40.

Williams

. In whom we trust: Group membership as an affective context for trust development. Acad Manage Rev. 2001;26(3):377–96.

41.

Edmondson

. Psychological safety, trust, and learning in organizations: A group-level lens. In: Kramer RM, Cook KS, editors. Trust and distrust in organizations: Dilemmas and approaches. NewYork: Russell Sage; 2004; 239–72.

42.

Luthans

, Youssef

. Emerging positive organizational behavior, J Manage. 2007;33(3):321–49.

43.

Cameron

, Spreitzer

, editors. The Oxford hand-book of positive organizational scholarship. New York: Oxford University Press; 2012.

44.

Glińska-Neweś

, Glinka

. Does Negativity Counterpoint Positivity, or the Other Way Round? On Positive Organizational Scholarship. Management Issues. 2019;17(4):24–38.

45.

Dutton

, Heaphy

. The power of high-quality connections. In: Cameron KS, Dutton JE, Quinn RE, editor. Positive organizational scholarship. Foundation of a new discipline. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers; 2003;263–78.

46.

Carmeli

, Brueller

, Dutton

. Learning behaviours in the workplace: The role of high-quality interpersonal relationships and psychological safety. Syst Res Behav Sci. 2009;26(1):81–98.

47.

Gittell

. A theory of relational coordination. In: Cameron KS, Dutton JE, Quinn RE, editors. Positive organizational scholarship. Foundation of a newdiscipline. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers; 2003;279–95.

48.

Gadomska-Lila

. Effectiveness of reverse mentoring in creating intergenerational relationships. Journal of Organizational Change Management. 2020;33(7):1313–28.

49.

de Lange

, Taris

, Kompier

MAJ

, Houtman

ILD

, Bongers

. The very best of the millennium: Longitudinal research and the demand-control-(support) model. J Occup Health Psychol. 2003;8(4):282–305.

50.

Carmeli

. Positive work relationships, vitality, and job performance. In: Härtel ChEJ, Ashkanasy NM, Zerbe WJ, editors. Emotions in groups, organizations and cultures,Vol. 5. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited; 2009;45–71.

51.

Hays

. Friendship. In: Duck S, Hay DF, Hobfoll SE, Ickes W, Montgomery BM, editors. Handbook of personal relationships: Theory, research and interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 1988;391–408.

52.

Halbesleben

JRB

. Positive coworker exchanges. In:Turnerde Tormes Eby L, Allen TD, editors. Personal relationships. The effect on employee attitudes, behavior, and well-being. New York: Routledge; 2012;107–30.

53.

Tse

HHM

, Dasborough

, Ashkanasy

. A multi-level analysis of team climate and interpersonal exchange relationships at work. Leadersh Q. 2008;19(2):195–211.

54.

Kahn

. Meaningful connections: Positive relationships and attachments at work. In: Dutton JE, Ragins BR, editors. Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation. New Jersey: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2007;189–208.

55.

LePine

, Van Dyne

. Voice and cooperative behavior as contrasting forms of contextual performance: Evidence of differential relationships with Big Five personality characteristics and cognitive ability. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2001;86(2):326–36.

56.

Spector

. Negative and positive coworker exchanges: An integration. In: Turner de Tormes Eby L, Allen TD, editor. Personal relationships. The effect on employee attitudes, behavior, and well-being. New York: Routledge; 2012;157–72.

57.

Rakowska

, Sitko-Lutek

, Mendryk

, Jakubiak

, Cichorzewska

. Diverse Competence Potential of Employees in Innovative Enterprises: Research Results. In: Rakowska A, editor. Unlocking the Potential of Employees in the Context of Organizational Diversity. Bangkok, Celje, Lublin: ToKnowPress; 2018;209–78.

58.

Hodgkinson

, Healey

. Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management. Strateg Manag J. 2011;32(13):1500–16.

59.

Lindebaum

, Geddes

, Jordan

, editors. Social functions of emotion and talking about emotion at work. Cheltenham: Elgar Publishing; 2018.

60.

Moura

, Jordan

, Troth

. Inside out: a receiver’s experience of anger in the workplace. In: Lindebaum D, Geddes D, Jordan PJ, editor. Social functions of emotion and talking about emotion at work. Cheltenham: Elgar Publishing; 2018;20–45.

61.

Pendleton

, Furnham

. Leadership: All you need to know. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016.

62.

Rook

. Introduction:Apsychodynamic approach to leadership development. In: Kets de Vries M, Korotov K, Florent-Treacy E, Rook C, editors. Coach and couch: The psychology of making better leaders. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016;1–15.

63.

Loewenstein

, Weber

, Hsee

, Welch

. Risk as feelings. Psychol Bull. 2001;172(2):267–86.

64.

Pasieczny

, Glinka

. Organizational Dysfunctions: Sources and Areas. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review. 2016;4(4):213–23.

65.

Bechara

, Damosio

, Damasio

. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 2000;10(3):295–307.

66.

Bowers

, Pharmer

, Salas

. When member homogeneity is needed in work teams. Small Group Research. 2000;31(3):305–27.

67.

Hirschhorn

. The workplace within: Psychodynamics of organizational life. Cambridge: The MIT Press; 1988.

68.

Armstrong

. Organization in the mind. New York: Karnac; 2006.

69.

De Board

. The psychoanalysis of organizations. A psychoanalytic approach to behavior in groups and organizations. New York: Brunner-Routledge; 2003.

70.

Oatley

, Keltner

, Jenkins

. Understanding emotions (2nd edition). Malden: Wiley-Blackwell; 2006.

71.

Weiss

. Conceptual and empirical foundations for the study of affect at work. In: Lord RG, Klimoski RJ, Kanfer R, editors. Emotions in the workplace: Understanding the structure and role of emotions in organizational behavior. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2002;20–63.

72.

Van Kleef

. Understanding the positive and negative effects ofemotional expressions in organizations: EASI does it. HumanRelations. 2014;67(9):1145–64.

73.

Bion

. Experiences in group and other papers. Hove: Routledge; 2006.

74.

Brown

, Starkey

. Organizational identity and learning: A psycho-dynamic perspective. Acad Manage Rev. 2000;25(1):102–20.

75.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Washington; 1987.

76.

Segal

. Teoria Melanii Klein w praktyce klinicznej [Melania Klein’s theory in clinical practice]. Gdańsk: GWP; 2005.

77.

Andrews

, Singh

, Bond

. The defense style questionnaire. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1993;181(4):246–56.

78.

Freud

. Wstęp do psychoanalizy [Introduction to psychoanalysis]. Warszawa: PWN; 2012.

79.

Forgas

. On mood and peculiar people: Affect and person typicality in impression formation. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1992;62(5):863–75.

80.

Andersen

, Kumar

. Emotions, trust and relationship development in business relationships: A conceptual model for buyer-seller dyads. Industrial Marketing Management. 2006;35(4):522–35.

81.

Jones

, George

. The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork. Acad Manage Rev. 1998;23(3):531–46.

82.

Lewicki

, Bunker

. Developing and maintaining trust in working relationships. In: Kramer RM, Tyler TR, editors. Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research. London: Sage; 1996;114–39.

83.

Gould

, Stapley

, Stein

, editors. The systems psychodynamics of organizations. Integrating the group relations approach, psychoanalytic, and open systems perspectives. London: Karnac; 2006.

84.

Smith

, Wingenbach

TSH

, Smith

. Shaping benign and malicious envy in organizations. In: Lindebaum D, Geddes D, Jordan PJ, editors. Social functions of emotion and talking about emotion at work. Cheltenham: Elgar Publishing; 2018;103–26.

85.

Connelly

, Turner

. Functional and dysfunctional fear at work: dual perspectives. In: Lindebaum D, Geddes D, Jordan PJ, editors. Social functions of emotion and talking about emotion atwork. Cheltenham: Elgar Publishing; 2018;127–53.

86.

Kets de Vries

MFR

, Guillen

, Korotow

, Florent-Treacy

. The coaching kaleidoscope: Insights from the inside. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2010.

87.

Ketola

. Eco-psychological profiling: An oil company example. Corp Soc Responsib Environ Manag. 2004;11(3):150–66.

88.

Hirschhorn

, Horowitz

. Extreme work environments: beyond anxiety and social defence. In: Armstrong D, Rustin MJ, editors. Social defences against anxiety: Explorations in a paradigm. London: Karnac Books; 2015;189–212.

89.

Elfenbein

, Ambady

. Predicting workplace outcomes from the ability to eavesdrop on feelings. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2002;87(5):963–71.

90.

Barki

, Hartwick

. Conceptualizing the construct of interpersonal conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management. 2004;15(3):216–44.

91.

Kets de Vries

MFR

, Miller

. The neurotic organization: Diagnosing and changing counterproductive styles of management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1984.

92.

Pratt

, Dirks

. Rebuilding trust and restoring positive relationships: A commitment based view of trust. In: Dutton JE, Ragins BR, editors. Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation. NewJersey: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2007;117–36.

93.

Belenzon

, Shamshur

, Zarutskie

. CEO’s age and the performance of closely held firms. Strateg Manag J. 2019;40(6):917–44.

94.

Stanczyk-Hugiet

, Stanczyk

. Services vs Image: Subjective Assessment in the High-Tech Knowledge-Intensive Industry. Transformations in Business & Economics. 2020;19(2A):469–81.

95.

Smardzewski

. The Polish furniture industry - a vision of the future. Drewno - Wood. 2009;52(182):103–14.

96.

Condition and prospects of the Polish furniture market. Polish Development Fund Special Report [Internet]. Available from: https://mediapfr.prowly.com/25227-condition-and-prospects-of-the-polish-furniture-market-polish-development-fund-special-report [Accessed 14 September 2019].

97.

Rynek meblarski w Polsce [Furniture market in Poland] [Internet]. Available from: https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/pl/pdf/2017/06/pl-Raport-KPMG-Rynek-meblarski-w-Polsce-2017.pdf [Accessed 14 September 2019].

98.

International expansion of Polish furniture industry [Internet]. Available from: https://industryeurope.com/international-expansion-of-polish-furniture-industry/ [Accessed 14 September 2019].

99.

Bond

. The development and properties of the Defense Style Questionnaire. In: Conte HR, Plutchik R, editors. Ego defences: Theory and measurement. New York: Wiley; 1995;202–20.

100.

Adams

, Sartori

. Validating the trust in teams and trust in leaders scales. Toronto: Defence Research & Development; 2006.

101.

Preacher

, Hayes

. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Methods. 2008;40:879–91.

102.

Fisher

, King

. The self-directed learning readiness scale for nursing education revisited: A confirmatory factor analysis. Nurse Educ Today. 2010;30(1):44–8.

103.

Podsakoff

, MacKenzie

, Lee

, Podsakoff

. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2003;88(5):879–903.

104.

Richardson

, Simmering

, Sturman

. A tale of three perspectives: Examining post hoc statistical techniques for detection and correction of common method variance. Organ Res Methods. 2009;12(4):762–800.

105.

Iacobucci

. Structural equations modelling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics. J Consum Psychol. 2010;20:90–8.

106.

McAllister

. Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Acad Manage J. 1995;38(1):24–59.

107.

Schwarz

. Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In: Higgins ET, Sorrentino RM, editors. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, Vol. 2. New York: Guilford Press; 1990;527–61.

108.

Carmeli

, Spreitzer

. Trust, connectivity, and thriving: Implications for innovative behaviors at work. J Creat Behav. 2009;43(3):169–91.

109.

Abdillah

, Anita

, Hadiyati , Zakaria

. Trust in leaders and employee silence behaviour: Evidence from higher education institutions in Indonesia. Human Systems Management. 2021;40(4):567–80.

110.

Konte

. Mindfulness and its impacts on managers: A pilot study. Human Systems Management. 2021;40(4):605–17.

111.

Bridger

. To explore the unconscious dynamics of transition as it affects interdependence of individual, group and organizational aims in paradigm change. In: Sievers B, editor. Psychoanalytic studies of organizations. London: Karnac Books; 2009;51–65.

112.

Rakowska

, de Juana

. Ready for the future? Employability skills and competencies in the twenty-first century: The view of international experts. Human Systems Management. 2021; Pre-press: 1–16.

113.

Krosnick

. Survey research. Annu Rev Psychol. 1990;50(1):537–67.

Defence mechanisms as predictors of trust and positive relationships in top management teams

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

OBJECTIVE:

METHODS:

RESULTS:

CONCLUSIONS:

1 Introduction

2 Theoretical background

2.1 Importance of relationships in TMTs

2.2 Trust within TMTs

2.3 Positive interpersonal relationships in TMTs

2.4 Antecedents of TMT relationships

2.5 Defence mechanisms

3 Hypothesis development

3.1 Defence mechanisms and trust

3.2 Defence mechanisms and positive relationships

3.3 Trust and positive relationships in TMTs

4.1 Sample

4.2 Measures

4.2.1 Defence mechanisms

4.2.2 Perceived trustworthiness

4.2.3 Positive relationships

4.3 Analyses

5 Results

5.1 Descriptive statistics

Table 2 Model fit Model fit Bollen-Stein P Correction Acceptable level Before After Chi-sqaure 141.200 96.178 df 83 83 Chi-sqaure/df 1.701 1.159 <3 RMSEA 0.076 0.036 <0.08 TLI(NNFI) 0.822 0.960 >0.9 CFI 0.860 0.968 >0.9

6.1 Managerial implications

6.2 Limitations

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Author contributions

References

Table 2
Model fit

Model fit Bollen-Stein P Correction Acceptable level

Before After

Chi-sqaure 141.200 96.178

df 83 83

Chi-sqaure/df 1.701 1.159 <3

RMSEA 0.076 0.036 <0.08

TLI(NNFI) 0.822 0.960 >0.9

CFI 0.860 0.968 >0.9