Gender differences in perception and usage of public transit technologies: Implications for digital government

Abstract

Technological solutions available to public agencies in delivering public services have increased, including the information and communication technologies (ICTs) used in public transit. For many women who depend on public transit services to access employment, childcare, education, health, and political processes (Hamilton & Jenkins, 2000), transit technologies may offer increased convenience and benefits and eventually improve their living conditions. While women tend to use public transit services more intensively than men (Racca & Ratledge, 2004), prior studies have shown that their perceptions and attitudes towards ICTs and patterns of technology use tend to differ from men. On the other hand, these differences are not well explored in the context of public transit services. Accordingly, using systematic literature review methodology, this paper intends to outline what we know and do not know about gender differences in technology adoption in the public transportation context to develop a research agenda for future studies. It aims to inform theory and policy development for digital government by identifying the gaps in this area.

Keywords

Gender digital government e-government research agenda public transit public services transportation ICT technology adoption CCTV autonomous cars real-time information systems ATIS smartphone applications security systematic literature review

1. Introduction

Technological initiatives for many public services have been increasingly growing. Along with that, whether citizens are willing to interact with these technologies has become an important policy issue. To help foster users’ adoption of technologies in the context of digital government, ensure equitable service provision, and get the highest return from the investments made to staffing, finances, and technology, it is essential to understand the drivers, barriers, and outcomes of individual technology usage.

Previous studies have identified significant determinants of individual technology use in the digital government context, such as perceived usefulness and ease of use of the technologies or applications and disparities in access and skills. Research has also suggested that their influence on technology adoption tends to vary by demographic variables, technology features, and usage context (Zhou et al., 2011; Yavuz, 2010). One of the main demographic variables of interest in this context has been gender. Studies showed that men and women differ in their attitudes and perceptions about the ease of use and usefulness of the technologies depending on the features and benefits of technology and the usage context and that their adoption purposes and usage levels tend to be different (Chen & Macredie, 2010; Weiser, 2000). As highlighted by digital government research, the degree to which other users are willing to and able to interact with various technologies have important implications for public service access and use (Martin & Goggin, 2016).

Women tend to use public transit services more intensively than men (Racca & Ratledge, 2004). For many women who depend on public transit services to access employment, childcare, education, health, and political processes (Hamilton & Jenkins, 2000), various transit technologies may offer increased convenience and benefits and eventually improve their living conditions. Although studies have compared men and women in terms of disparities in technology access, skills, interests, usage levels, and outcomes related to various areas of digital government, the public transit context is an underexplored area.

In light of this gap, this paper aims to outline what we know and do not know about whether men and women differ in their perceptions and behaviors regarding various technologies developed for public transit services. It attempts to develop a research agenda for future studies based on the identified gaps. The following research questions guide the study: What is the current status of the literature on gender differences in technology adoption in the public transportation context? What are the gaps in the literature in this area? How can we move this scholarship forward? Along with that, the paper aims to inform theory and policy development in this area of digital government.

The research methodology adopted in the present study is the systematic literature review, which includes systematic identification of the relevant literature on the chosen topic and analyzing the existing research to develop answers to the specific research questions of a study (Jabbour et al., 2020; Clarinval et al., 2020). The present study focuses on analyzing gender differences in the perceptions and behaviors of transit technologies as identified by the systematic literature search: ICT-enabled traveler information systems, smartphone applications, security cameras, and autonomous vehicles.

The significance of the study is threefold. First, it aims to make a theoretical contribution by reviewing what we know and don’t know about gender differences in technology adoption in the public transportation context and discussing how to move this scholarship forward. As public transportation is a form of public service that utilizes various technologies, findings from the study are relevant for digital government research. Based on the literature review, the study attempts to identify possible avenues for research and theoretical development in the digital government area addressing gender and technology adoption in transit. Second, various technologies can be utilized in this specific public service area, such as traveler information systems, smartphone applications, or security cameras. Therefore, understanding whether men and women differ in their technology usage perceptions and behaviors in using public transit services has important policy implications for the design of these technologies. Third, research shows that more women utilize public transportation services than men; thus, transportation technologies may benefit women who mainly depend on public transit. Therefore, reviewing women’s perceptions or usage of various transit technologies compared to men may provide insights for public transit agencies to improve their services.

The paper is organized as follows. The first part provides a brief overview of the gender-technology relationship in light of the major theories of technology adoption to develop a framework for the study. The second section reviews the leading technologies offered to the individual users of public transit services. The following section describes the methods used in the study, followed by presenting the findings from the systematic literature review on gender and technology use in the public transit context. Discussion and conclusions sections elaborate on the implications of the identified gender differences for digital government research and the provision of equitable public services.

2. Gender and technology adoption

This section reviews the literature on gender and technology adoption. It informs the analyses and discussions on how and why men and women may differ in their attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors related to public transit-related technologies. Attitude is defined as a feeling of favorableness or unfavorableness towards using a technology (performing the actual behavior). It is formed by perceptions such as opinions about ease of use and usefulness of technology as proposed by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989). According to various theories related to technology adoption, including TAM, Theory of Reasoned Action, and Theory of Planned Behavior, attitudes that are formed by perceptions influence the intention to use a technology, which in turn affects the actual adoption/usage behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Madden et al., 1992).

The literature on technology adoption identifies several factors that affect individuals’ decisions to use technology, including individual perceptions about technology use (mainly perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness), individual characteristics (e.g., innovativeness, lifestyle, gender, age, education, ethnicity, income), technology context (features of the technology), social context (social influences and image), usage context (e.g., availability of other options, dependence on the service), and facilitating conditions (e.g., availability of resources, access, skills, and self-efficacy) (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000; Kennedy et al., 2003; Mossberger et al., 2003). Along with these, research has also shown that for men and women, the effects of these factors on their technology perceptions and adoption behaviors tend to be different for various types of technologies (Ameen & Willis, 2019; Choe et al., 2012; Chung, 2014; Rodríguez-Ardura & Meseguer-Artola, 2016).

Related to the availability of resources and skills, one line of research examined disparities in access to computers and the Internet and the skills needed to use these technologies referred to as the “digital divide” (Mossberger et al., 2003; Warschauer, 2003). The digital divide literature identified gender as one of the critical factors contributing to the disparities in access and skills related to technologies, with women being the disadvantaged group (Kennedy et al., 2003; Mossberger et al., 2003).

Although studies have found that the gender gap in access to technology closed by the end of the 20 ${}^{\text{th}}$ century, the differences between men and women remain in the frequency of use, the activities pursued online, or the presence of women in technology-intensive occupations (Tolbert et al., 2007). Research indicates that motivations for using technology vary according to situational factors of men and women (Ameen & Willis, 2019; Zhou et al., 2011). For example, women’s internet use is affected by their childcare provider, kinkeeper, and networker roles. In contrast, men use the Internet less for social purposes and more for searching for information and pursuing more isolated recreational activities (Kennedy et al., 2003). Similarly, another study showed that while men use the Internet mainly for entertainment and leisure, women use it primarily for interpersonal communication and educational assistance (Weiser, 2000). In addition, women tend to be less interested in online political participation, such as town meetings, voting, or registering to vote (Mossberger et al., 2003).

Compared to men, women tend to use the Internet less intensively and use it for a lower number of purposes (DiMaggio et al., 2004; Boneva et al., 2001; Katz & Rice, 2002; Mossberger et al., 2006). In explaining this disparity, research has found that women report a feeling of inadequacy and tend to underestimate their skills (Hargittai & Shafer, 2006). Similarly, other studies have identified women’s lower confidence and self-efficacy related to technology use as the main factor affecting the lower levels of internet use compared to men (Michie & Nelson, 2006). However, research has found almost no difference between men and women in technical competence, information literacy, or the ability to use the Internet to find information (Mossberger et al., 2003; Hargittai & Shafer, 2006). Limited time and family responsibilities also explain differences in men’s and women’s internet use, with parenthood having a constraining effect on usage, particularly for women (Howard et al., 2001).

In addition, opportunities to learn about technology in the workplace or other settings might account for the differences between men and women. Women at home may lack the opportunity to have greater access to the web and get support and advice from technical experts (Wasserman & Richman-Abbott, 2005).

The gap in the use of the Internet has a significant impact on e-government usage. Not every demographic group utilizes the e-government at similar levels (Jaeger & Thompson 2003). Research shows that people who are using the e-government are likely to be middle class with “ready access to equipment and training in how to use the equipment” (Stowers, 2002, p. 11). In addition, they tend to be men, younger, better educated, and have a higher income (Kose, 2019; Mossberger et al., 2003). E-government use tends to be common among those with at least some college education (Larsen & Rainie, 2002). Research has also shown significant differences in the use of e-government “particularly between different income groups” (Booz Allen Hamilton, 2002, p. 71).

Women are less likely to visit government websites as they are less interested in such websites, and there are other kinds of demands placed on their time (West, 2005). However, national surveys that focused on local governments have also shown that higher percentages of women use local government websites due to their perceived usefulness for their daily routines (Larsen & Rainie, 2002; Mossberger & Tolbert, 2009). Similarly, because women tend to depend on the transit service, they may also be more likely to need travel information frequently, such as service changes or how to get to a destination of interest. Therefore they are more likely to perceive the transit agency websites as a relevant, useful, and convenient technology that can provide them with up-to-date travel information 24/7, which may not be easily and readily available anywhere else (Yavuz, 2010).

Along with the insights provided by technology-adoption research highlighting the differences between men and women, similar differences may be expected in the perceptions and behaviors related to the technologies used in public transit services based on gender. The following section describes the technologies that are utilized in public transit services.

3. Technologies related to individuals’ use of public transit services

Technological solutions available to public agencies in delivering public services have increased, including the information and communication technologies (ICTs) used in public transit. The use of ICTs in public transit offers many opportunities to public transit agencies and the users of the system. For example, using information technology provides public transit passengers with increased convenience of accessing up-to-date or real-time transit information whenever needed, which may, in turn, increase ridership and revenues for the public transit agency.

One of the main ICT applications offered to the users of public transit environments is advanced traveler information system (ATIS), which include hand-held, vehicle-mounted, kiosk-based, and web-based information and communication systems as well as smartphone applications (Kamga et al., 2013, p. 219). ATIS provides travelers with real-time travel information through the Internet, telephone services such as short message service, in-car guidance systems, variable message signs, etc. Its advantage lies in the fact that the user may access it while mobile and get automatic messages.

One form of ATIS is the delivery of transit-related information through the agency website. Transit agency websites provide individuals with online information regarding using the transit system, customer alerts for the latest service updates, online trip planner, bus and train schedules, system maps and brochures, etc. They may also provide real-time information about where a particular bus or train is located and when it will arrive at a specific stop. The user can also access a “Street View” from this map, where they can set a pop-up alert to get a notification to their smartphone when a bus or train reaches a given stop.

Literature on the use of ATIS has focused on what kind of traveler would be more likely to need and use travel information provided through this technology and in what kind of trip context (Chorus, 2007). Research indicates that users of travel information are more likely to be men, highly educated, high-income travelers, and professionals who appear to value significantly making an accurate choice (Petrella & Lappin, 2004; Emmerink et al., 1996). In addition, travelers who use mobile phones and the Internet are more likely to adopt ATIS (Polydoropoulou & Ben-Akiva, 1998; Yim et al., 2002). Studies show that these groups tend to be more familiar and experienced with handling information technology, thus tend to have higher perceptions about ease of use, usefulness, and potential of ATIS (Chorus et al., 2006). The literature also states that ATIS awareness and use are linked to personality characteristics such as being a control seeker and technologically astute (Polydoropoulou & Ben-Akiva, 1998).

According to research, the trip purposes and contexts that motivate travelers to search for information are the following. Individuals that go on time-sensitive and longer trips and those that travel during peak hours are more likely to search for transit information to reduce uncertainty and help with trip planning (Polydoropoulou & Ben-Akiva, 1998; Peirce & Lappin, 2004). In addition, an expectation of bad weather during the trip has been found to affect the search for transit information, thus using ATIS. These may indicate that perceived lack of knowledge regarding unexpected or problematic events during the trip and inadequate knowledge about coping with those situations are linked to increased willingness to search for pre-decisional information (Chorus et al., 2006).

Smartphone applications developed for public transit environments are also increasingly becoming prevalent among users. They allow users to track various modes of public transit and help with booking multi-transit trips remotely and paying fares online. In addition, ride-sharing applications available for smartphones offer users increased benefits in terms of the cost of transit and time and energy savings (Shirgaokar, 2020).

Another commonly used technology in the provision of public transit services is closed-circuit television (CCTV). As a surveillance technology, the use of CCTV may help prevent crime and reduce fear of crime in transit passengers who are waiting at train stations or bus stops or riding transit vehicles, based on the belief that crimes will not be committed where they can be easily observed (Reed et al., 2000; Cozens et al., 2004).

The following sections present the methodology and findings of the literature review to identify the gaps and propose a research agenda for gender-technology use relationship in public transit.

4. Methodology

This study adopted a systematic literature review analysis to provide an overview of the extant literature and outline a research agenda on gender differences in technology perceptions and use related to public transportation services. The literature search was conducted in two steps. In the first step, Web of Science Core Collection (Science Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities Citation Index, and Emerging Sources Citation Index) was searched using the Boolean expressions of “gender” and “technology” and “public transportation” or “public transit” in the title, abstract and keyword sections for identifying the target publications, covering all the available periods (1945–2020). The reason for choosing the Web of Science database is that it is a key source covering peer-reviewed journal articles in the transportation area. The initial search in Web of Science returned 25 journal articles and one conference paper. The contents of the publications were further screened to pinpoint the most relevant empirical studies. The two main criteria used in this filtering process were that the papers presented an empirical study about the individuals’ perceptions or behaviors related to public transportation technology and discussed gender as one of the variables. As a result of the filtering, ten key publications were identified for review from the Web of Science database. As a second step, an additional search in the Google Scholar database using the keywords “public transportation” or “public transit,” “gender,” and “technologies” has been performed to identify any key relevant studies that the initial search might have omitted. Three additional articles were added to the analysis at the end of this step, highlighting how men and women perceive and interact with various technologies while using public transit services. Thus, all the selection criteria used in the study resulted in 13 key publications to be reviewed.

In the analysis part of the study, the author first reviewed the studies to identify their research purposes, methodologies, context, and theoretical frameworks (if any) and classify the specific technologies discussed in each article. A table was filled out with this identified information for each publication by focusing on the abstract, keywords, introduction, and methodology sections of the reviewed publications. Next, the author examined the findings and conclusions of each article, with a particular focus on the gender variable. No software was used for these analyses. The analyses aimed to reveal the gender differences – if any – in the attitudes and behaviors related to using different transit technologies and technology use outcomes concerning this public service area. In addition, it attempted to gain insights on how the existing literature on technology adoption in the public transit context treats the gender variable and to identify what they suggested as a research road map for future studies about the gender-technology relationship. Because only a few of the articles included in the review specifically focused on addressing gender differences in technology use in transit, the author made inferences about their implications for gender-technology discussion where necessary. The findings from these analyses were then categorized according to the type of transit technologies.

5. Findings

The reviewed studies and their descriptions are summarized in Table 1.

Overall, the analyses on the objectives of the articles reveal that the existing studies mostly address the relationship between gender and public transit technology perceptions and behaviors indirectly. They tend to have various research purposes and research questions, focus on multiple technologies and contexts, and utilize numerous frameworks. In addition, studies were conducted in different geographical and socio-cultural contexts, using diverse sample characteristics. Although they all include gender as

Table 1
Description of the reviewed studies (Ordered by the type of technology)

Author(s) and date of publication	Research objective	Public transit technology that is the subject of the study	Analytical framework used in the study (if any)	Results on gender	Methodology/sample characteristics	Context
Rivadeneyra et al. (2015)	To understand gender-based violence in public transportation in Mexico City, Mexico, and to define a strategy to reduce its presence in the specific context of that city	Smartphone applications		The use of mobile phone technology can help with preventing crime and improving perceptions of safety for women.	(a) user pilot survey, (b) workshops with users, (c) interviews with service operators, and (d) interviews with other institutions and organizations with an interest in the provision of public transportation services in Mexico City.	Mexico City, Mexico
Sarker et al. (2019)	To examine willingness to share travel information as part of daily routine using transit app	Smartphone applications	Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)	Although women had higher motivation for transit information sharing, they reported more difficulties in using the transit app platform to share travel information as part of their daily routine compared to men.	Web-based survey of undergraduate and graduate students of the University of Innsbruck in Austria and the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby (part of Greater Copenhagen2).	Copenhagen, Denmark
Shirgaokar (2020)	To examine how transportation network company (TNC) services such as Lyft and Uber present an alternative for seniors’ mobility in comparison to taxis	Smartphone applications	The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)	Senior women were less comfortable and had lower confidence while using TNC applications on smartphones. In addition, they were found to be more concerned with paying for transportation services online compared to senior men.	Interviews and focus groups with men and women with an of age 65 or over.	Edmonton, Canada
Velazquez et al., (2018)	To investigate the behavioral drivers underlying the adoption of a multimodal travel information mobile app	Smartphone applications	Extended Technology Acceptance Model (ETAM)	Men were found to be significantly more enthusiastic about using technology in general than women.	Web-based survey of 2000 public transit users of different ages.	Madrid, Spain

Table 1, continued
Author(s) and date of publication	Research objective	Public transit technology that is the subject of the study	Analytical framework used in the study (if any)	Results on gender	Methodology/sample characteristics	Context
Loukaitou-Sideris (2014)	To examine women’s safety in transit environments and identify the strategies that can make them feel safer	Security technology		Security technology devices can significantly help with women’s safety.	In-depth interviews with representatives of 16 national women’s interest groups in the United States.	USA
Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink (2009)	To examine the issue of women’s safety on transit through a survey of U.S. transit operators	Security technology		A mismatch between the safety and security needs and desires of women and the types and locations of strategies that transit agencies use.	Survey of 245 transit agencies in the USA.	USA
Yavuz and Welch (2010)	To understand whether train transit security practices and service attributes affect men and women differently	Security technology	Perceived vulnerability	The presence of CCTV cameras is significant for both men and women’s perceived train safety; however, compared with men, it tends to have a lower positive effect on women.	Telephone survey of 1172 customers of Chicago Transit Authority.	Chicago, USA
Ferris et al. (2010)	What are the outcomes of OneBusAway, a set of transit tools focused on providing real-time arrival information for Seattle-area bus riders?	Advanced Traveler Information Systems		Increase in women’s perception of personal safety due to this technology was greater than that of men’s.	Survey of 488 OneBusAway users.	Seattle, Washington USA
Islam et al. (2019)	To explore how popular ubiquitous real-time passenger information (URTPI) is, and the effects of trip characteristics and socio-demographic features of passengers	Advanced Traveler Information Systems		No gender differences in URTPI use. Google Maps is less preferred by women compared to men.	Face to face survey of 1645 respondents through a bus passenger survey.	Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Table 1, continued
Author(s) and date of publication	Research objective	Public transit technology that is the subject of the study	Analytical framework used in the study (if any)	Results on gender	Methodology/sample characteristics	Context
Kamga et al. (2013)	To examine the implementation of interactive touch-screen information kiosks, to understand actual passenger utilization of the kiosks and to assess the implications for transit agencies	Advanced Traveler Information Systems		Men generally had higher levels of use of touch-screen information kiosk than women.	Data from passenger intercept surveys, from the kiosks’ built-in application usage logs and from field observations to understand actual passenger utilization of the kiosks and to assess the implications for transit agencies.	New York City Transit Facilities, USA
Petrella and Lappin (2004)	To analyze customer response to online traffic information in the Los Angeles, California, and Seattle, Washington	Advanced Traveler Information Systems		Users of online traffic information in both the Los Angeles and Seattle tend to be men.	Online survey to users of the Travel Advisory News Network and SmarTraveler websites in Los Angeles, and Washington State Department of Transportation Traffic Conditions website.	Los Angeles, California, and Seattle, Washington, USA
Guo et al. (2020)	To understand the public’s perceptions of a real, fully operational, automated public transportation service	Automated vehicles		No significant differences in men and women’s willingness to take the public buses with autonomous technology.	Online panel survey data of 505 respondents.	Stockholm, Sweden
Hulse et al. (2018)	To examine perceptions of individuals with regard to autonomous vehicles	Automated vehicles		Men were more likely to perceive autonomous cars (and autonomous trains and various other human-operated vehicles) as less risky and have a positive attitude towards autonomous cars, demonstrating acceptance”.	Online survey of 1048 individuals.	United Kingdom

a variable in the empirical analysis part, the studies do not primarily focus on gender and technology relationship in the public transit context. Instead, most studies include gender as a control variable or as a moderator of other variables, such as age. Besides, the reviewed studies generally do not provide any theoretical explanations about why a difference exists between men and women in technology perceptions and use. In other words, there is a gap in the literature concerning understanding and explaining the extent to which and why men and women differ in their usage and perceptions related to various public transit technologies. In addition, the identified articles are mostly published in transportation-related journals, with only a few publications in gender and public policy domains. Thus, the connection with the digital government research domain also seems to be missing.

The types of technologies identified in the reviewed studies can be categorized as smartphone applications, security technologies, ICT-enabled traveler information systems, and autonomous vehicles. The following sub-sections present the analyses about the gender-technology relationship.

5.1 Smartphone applications used in public transit and gender

Overall, the analysis of the four articles in this category suggests some gender differences in perceptions and behaviors related to the use of smartphone applications in transit. It implies that gender predicts perceived usefulness, ease of use, and trust in the smartphone applications developed for public transit. Besides the variance in the perceptions and behaviors of men and women related to this technology, the outcomes of technology use also appear to be different for the two demographic groups, as indicated in the case of perceived transit safety.

One of the identified studies addressed how transportation network company (TNC) services such as Lyft and Uber that operate over smartphone applications present an alternative for seniors’ mobility compared to taxis (Shirgaokar, 2020). Findings of the study suggested that senior women were less comfortable and had lower confidence while using TNC applications on smartphones. In addition, they were more concerned about paying for transportation services online than senior men.

Another study investigated the behavioral drivers underlying the adoption of a multimodal travel information mobile app, “Mi Transporte,” which allows users to obtain customized and automated information. The results indicated that “the app adoption is correlated with the intention of the users to adopt it and with their willingness-to-pay; user’s expectations on the app, affinity for technology (technophilia) and the previous use of other transport apps” (Velazquez et al., 2018, p. 64). About technology use in general, men were found to be significantly more enthusiastic than women.

Similarly, Sarker et al. (2019) examined willingness to share travel information as part of a daily routine using a transit application. They found that although women had higher motivation for transit information sharing, they reported more difficulties using the transit app platform to share travel information as part of their daily routine than men.

On the other hand, one of the studies reviewed indicated a higher appreciation of smartphone applications by women riders of transit. Rivadeneyra et al. (2015) argued that mobile phone technology could help prevent crime and improve women’s safety perceptions. They are particularly useful for facilitating the instant reporting of sexual harassment in transit environments and empowering users (Rivadeneyra et al., 2015, p. 193).

It is possible to identify some future research avenues based on the review of the studies in this category. First, the studies suggest that gender may interact with other demographic variables, such as age, in explaining technology adoption behavior. Thus, future research may further explore the use of smartphone applications in transit by different demographic and socio-economic groups. Second, the studies emphasize a need to investigate the relationship between the frequency of transit use and the adoption of smartphone applications for transit. Considering the women’s public transit dependence, the effects of frequency of transit use may be more significant for women, thus deserve attention by future studies. Third, studies call for further research on encouraging individuals to use collaborative transit apps for information sharing. This future research focus may also include exploration in terms of gender.

5.2 Security technologies used in public transit and gender

Three studies reviewed in this category generally imply that both men and women perceive security technologies such as panic buttons or phones on transit vehicles as useful. On the other hand, there are mixed findings on the relative effectiveness of security cameras according to men’s and women’s perceptions.

Loukaitou-Sideris (2014) conducted a study on women riders of public transit. They reported that security technologies such as emergency buttons, phones on trains, buses, and bus stops could significantly help with their safety. Besides, technologies that provide real-time scheduling information at bus stops enable predictability, reliability, and efficiency and reduce extended waiting. The study also showed that the results regarding the effectiveness of CCTV cameras were mixed, but most respondents were generally in favor of using them.

Similarly, the findings in the empirical study by Yavuz and Welch (2010) indicated that CCTV cameras are significant for both men and women’s perceived train safety; however, compared with men, it tends to have a lower positive effect on women. This finding was explained by the perceived vulnerability of men and women in the study. Women tend to feel vulnerable to victimization when nobody is around and tend to be more skeptical that somebody is watching the video camera surveillance; for men, on the other hand, video cameras help reduce perceived vulnerability by reminding them that somebody is watching and everything is under ‘control.’

Finally, a study surveying transit agencies found a mismatch between women’s safety and security needs and desires and the types and locations of the strategies that transit agencies use (Loukaitou-Sideris & Fink, 2009). It argued that, although women prefer the presence of a staff member rather than CCTVs in transit environments, over 90 percent of the transit agencies surveyed reported that they had CCTVs in train stations as their primary technology strategy.

The implications of these studies for proposing a research agenda are as follows: The effects of technology use on women’s and men’s feelings of safety may also be explored for infrequent riders, as the reviewed studies mainly focus on the frequent riders of public transit. Future studies may also address whether newer transit technologies such as artificial intelligence-based robots or chatbots can address the security needs of women in using transit.

5.3 Advanced traveler information systems and gender

The findings in this section generally suggest that both gender groups highly appreciate the advanced traveler information systems as a public transit technology. However, there can be differences in the perceptions and behaviors related to the specific technologies used in the real-time provision of transit information, which may be due to the various levels of user-friendliness or usefulness in these technologies.

Ubiquitous real-time passenger information (URTPI) refers to the real-time information available through the Internet, such as a bus tracker or train tracker. As highlighted by Islam et al. (2019), “ubiquitous real-time passenger information (URTPI) enhances the perceived quality of service of public transport and enables travelers to make better pre-trip and en-route travel choices” (p. 130). Given the importance of transit information for all demographic groups, this study found no gender differences in URTPI use. On the other hand, it also revealed that women prefer Google Maps less than men.

Moreover, Kamga et al. (2013) examined interactive touch-screen information kiosk at Metropolitan Transportation Authority-New York City Transit. Although the study reported that men generally had higher levels of use of touch-screen information kiosks than women, due to the lack of data for the gender distribution of all passengers, it was not possible to conclude that men used the kiosks more than women.

Similarly, the study by Petrella and Lappin (2004) suggested that users of online traffic information in both Los Angeles and Seattle tend to be men, well-educated, upper-income commuters, and have higher than average Internet and mobile communications.

Another study that analyzed passenger perceptions related to “OneBusAway,” a set of transit tools focused on providing real-time arrival information for Seattle-area bus riders, found that men and women were different about the effects of this technology (Ferris et al., 2010). According to the study, the increase in women’s perception of personal safety due to this technology was greater than men’s.

The studies in this category reveal that future research may explore the use of real-time information technologies for different trip purposes and travel times, including night trips for men and women.

5.4 Automation technology and gender

An analysis of the studies in this category reveals mixed results. According to a study conducted by Guo et al. (2020) on autonomous (self-driving) buses as a transportation choice, there were no significant differences in men’s and women’s willingness to take the public buses with autonomous technology. On the other hand, Hulse et al. (2018) found that “compared to women, men were more likely to perceive autonomous cars (and autonomous trains and various other human-operated vehicles) as less risky and have a positive attitude towards autonomous cars, demonstrating acceptance” (p. 8). This may imply that perceptions of trust in the technology may also affect their use by men and women differently in public transit environments.

It can be argued that this is an emerging area of research in the transportation area, and the gender aspect needs to be included more in the research agenda. More studies are needed to understand and explain the differences between women’s and men’s attitudes and behaviors towards newer transit technologies, including self-driving vehicles.

6. Discussion

Digital government is shortly defined as using digital technologies, especially web-based applications, to improve access to and efficiently deliver government information and services (Brown & Brudney, 2001). Along with the digitalization of public services, many technological initiatives have been implemented to provide public transportation information and services as reviewed above, such as advanced traveler information systems, transit websites, smartphone transit applications, or security cameras. As an area of public service, improvements to public transportation services may significantly affect the lives of many women who depend on transit for their mobility needs. However, the role of gender in the adoption and use of digital government initiatives has been an underexplored issue. An integrated body of knowledge on the perceptions and behaviors of women and men regarding public transit technologies is also lacking. Accordingly, this study aimed to systematically review the existing studies in this domain to identify what we know and don’t know about gender and technology relationship in the public transit context and propose an agenda for future research in this area of digital government research.

The systematic review revealed that the gender-technology use relationship in the public transit context is inadequately addressed in the literature, with only a few studies directly examining this topic. The main groups of transit technologies that emerged from the review are smartphone applications, security technologies, Advanced Traveler Information Systems, and automation technologies. The findings indicated that perceived usefulness/effectiveness and ease of use of the technologies, trust in the technologies, feelings of safety, and demographic factors such as age might relate to the observed gender differences for these technologies. As explained earlier, more research is needed to understand and explain the differences between men and women for various technology types so that any barriers to the effective utilization of these technologies can be overcome. While the literature on advanced traveler information systems seems to be relatively more developed, the review suggests that the number of studies investigating gender differences for more innovative technologies such as automated public transit vehicles, smartphone applications, or artificial intelligence-based technologies needs to increase.

Another identified gap in the literature concerns theory development. The reviewed studies generally suggest that men and women tend to have distinct attitudes and usage behaviors related to various technologies offered in transit environments; however, they do not adequately address why these differences exist. In other words, most of the reviewed studies do not provide any theoretical explanations for the observed differences between men and women. Gender is mainly treated as a control variable or a moderator of some other variable of interest in the literature. In light of this, it may be suggested that future studies in this area need to focus more directly on gender and technology relationship and investigate the theoretical explanations for why such differences may exist. Qualitative studies may particularly shed more light on the underlying mechanisms explaining gender differences.

As reviewed in the Gender and Technology Adoption section of this paper, the existing technology adoption theories may also provide a research framework to explore the gender-technology use relationship in the public transit context. Accordingly, it may be argued that personal characteristics of individuals such as innovativeness, technical skills, level of trust, financial resources, etc. and several features of the transit technologies, including ease of use/complexity, affordability/cost, effectiveness and benefits, safety, and accessibility may overall contribute to the divergent attitudes and behaviors based on gender. Besides, future studies on the gender-technology relationship may also explore the effects of some additional variables unique to women in the public transportation context, such as perceived vulnerability due to security needs, dependence on the public service, frequency of transit use, and time of travel as highlighted by transportation research. Such constructs may be included in the theoretical frameworks and maybe empirically tested in future studies.

In addition, as indicated by some of the reviewed studies, gender may interact with some other demographic and socio-economic variables such as age, ethnicity, education, income, etc. The effects of these interactions may also be explored in the empirical studies in this area. Comparative studies from developing and developed regions of the world may give more insights into the significance of these gender-related interactions for technology adoption in public transit.

7. Conclusion

By systematically reviewing the literature related to gender and transit technologies, this study aimed to outline what we know and don’t know about the gender-technology relationship in the public transit context and propose a research agenda for future studies. In addition, it aimed to discuss the implications of gender differences for policy development in this area.

Studies show that women and men may experience different constraints and needs while using public transit services, such as fear of crime or service reliability, and they may also differ in the interest in technology use and confidence/trust about using technology. In designing technological innovations to deliver public services and information, public agencies need to make sure that these initiatives can appeal to and be utilized by citizens with diverse backgrounds and needs, mainly by paying attention to gender differences and considering women’s preferences. Because men and women may differ in lifestyle, public service use, and needs, and may have different levels of resources and experiences related to technology use, how public agencies design and develop technology applications has significant implications for who will benefit from these technologies and who will not. In the context of public transportation use, these technologies may need to be developed in a way that can appeal to and be intensively utilized by women who depend on public transportation more than men. For example, panic buttons/call buttons may be highly useful for women to feel safer in transit environments. Similarly, traveler information systems or information kiosks may provide increased convenience to women as frequent public transit riders. Therefore, governments also need to make certain that women users of the public transit services, especially frequent or dependent users, are aware of the benefits and relative advantages of these technologies.

Technological tools available to governments in interacting with the public are growing every day, ranging from social media, smartphone applications, Internet of things to artificial intelligence. As men and women are likely to differ in technology adoption factors, it is necessary to address barriers to technology adoption by considering the differences in perceptions, needs, interests, resources, and experiences of these groups related to various public service areas and numerous technological features. Thus, digital government research needs to focus more on understanding and explaining these factors that are important for men’s and women’s perceptions and use of different technologies in different public service contexts such as education, health, and transportation. In addition, public policies and programs that aim to promote technology use can be tailored according to the identified gender factors and technological features. For example, lower levels of trust in women regarding automated public transit vehicles can be addressed by advertisements promoting their safety.

Since the failure to detect and address demographic variations related to the use of transit technologies may jeopardize equitable service provision, a better understanding of these gender-based differences in technology-related attitudes and behaviors through empirical studies might also guide the development of policies and programs that aim to improve public transit.

Lastly, this study has some limitations. First, the systematic literature review covers a limited number of publications identified by the Web of Science Core Collection and some journal articles identified by the Scholar Google database based on the author-specified keywords. There may be additional publications addressing the topic, which the study might have missed due to selecting these databases or the keywords. Second, since the literature on the gender-technology relationship in the public transportation context is relatively immature, the systematic review results may not be sufficient to answer related research questions or test any hypothesized relationships. The identified studies generally indirectly address the gender-technology relationship and have diverse research purposes. Thus, the practicality of this methodology is limited with presenting an overview of the existing literature, identifying the gaps in it, and proposing a research agenda for future studies. It is recommended that future studies focus on empirically testing the current theories of technology adoption in the public transit context. In addition, researchers may investigate various technologies and gender as the main variables of interest and analyze the extent to which men and women differ in their technology perceptions and behaviors in transit environments and why.

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Gender differences in perception and usage of public transit technologies: Implications for digital government

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. Gender and technology adoption

3. Technologies related to individuals’ use of public transit services

4. Methodology

5. Findings

Table 1 Description of the reviewed studies (Ordered by the type of technology)

5.2 Security technologies used in public transit and gender

5.3 Advanced traveler information systems and gender

5.4 Automation technology and gender

6. Discussion

7. Conclusion

References

Table 1
Description of the reviewed studies (Ordered by the type of technology)